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(C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) T h e m e : T h in k in g A b o u t H is t o r y O v e r v ie w P erh ap s th e m o st im p o rtan t p art o f th in k in g lik e a h isto rian is k n o w in g h o w to th in k a b o u t h isto ry . T h at m ean s u n d erstan d in g h o w h isto ry can affect y o u , in y o u r o w n life— an d k n o w in g h o w h isto rian s g o ab o u t th e b u sin ess o f ex p lain in g h isto ry to o th ers. T h e p ro cess o f research in g a h isto rical ev en t— th e p ro cess y o u ‘re g o in g th ro u g h in th is co u rse— w ill ch an g e y o u in m an y d ifferen t w ay s. O b v io u sly , it w ill g iv e y o u n ew p ersp ectiv es an d n ew in sig h ts ab o u t th e ev en t y o u ‘re research in g . B u t it w ill also g iv e y o u n ew p ersp ectiv es an d n ew in sig h ts ab o u t h o w th e w o rld w o rk s. O n e o f th e in sig h ts y o u ‘re lik ely to g ain in v o lv es th e id ea o f h isto rical co m p lex ity . T h at’s th e id ea th at th ere are n o easy o r sim p le ex p lan atio n s fo r h isto rical ev en ts; th e p ro cess o f h isto rical ch an g e is th e p ro d u ct o f a co m p licated array o f cau ses an d co n tin g en t ev en ts, all o f w h ich n eed to b e u n d ersto o d in th e co n tex t in w h ich th ey to o k p lace. T h e id ea th at th ere are n o easy ex p lan atio n s ap p lies n o t ju st to h isto ry b u t also to life. B ein g ab le to reco g n ize th at co m p lex ity , an d to av o id sim p listic reaso n in g , is a life sk ill th at w ill serv e y o u w ell in w h atev er field y o u ch o o se to p u rsu e. In th is th em e, w e’ll in tro d u ce y o u to th e id ea o f h isto rical co m p lex ity an d ask y o u to th in k ab o u t h o w d ifferen t h isto rical situ atio n s m ay b e m o re co m p lex th an th ey first ap p ear. T h in k in g ab o u t h isto ry also m ean s k n o w in g h o w to ap p ly h isto rical co n cep ts to y o u r o w n life. In th is th em e, w e’ll ask y o u to th in k ab o u t th e im p act th at h isto rical th in k in g m ay h av e o n th e ch o ices y o u m ak e in y o u r acad em ic career. A n d y o u ‘ll see h o w th e sk ills y o u ‘v e acq u ired in th is co u rse can b e ap p lied to o th er acad em ic d iscip lin es. A t th e en d o f T h em e: T h in k in g A b o u t H isto ry , y o u ‘ll h av e th e o p p o rtu n ity to ap p ly th ese co n cep ts d irectly . T h at’s w h en y o u ‘ll b e ask ed to su b m it th e fin al v ersio n o f th e essay co n tain in g y o u r h isto rical ev en t an aly sis. L e a r n in g O u tc o m e A fter co m p letin g th is th em e, y o u sh o u ld b e ab le to : Illu strate th e im p act o f h isto rical th in k in g o n y o u r p erso n al an d p ro fessio n al ex p erien ces C opyright © 2017 M indE dge Inc. A ll rights reserved. D uplication prohibited. A n ex h ib it o f b u ffalo h id e artw o rk at th e N atio n al M u seu m o f th e A m erican In d ian . (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) T h e m e : T h in k in g A b o u t H is t o r y | L e a r n in g B lo c k 7 -1 : C iv il R ig h t s a n d E c o n o m ic L ib e r t y R ig h t s , O p p o r t u n it y , a n d N a t iv e A m e r ic a n s A m erican s lik e to th in k o f th e U n ited S tates as th e “L an d o f O p p o rtu n ity “— th e p lace w h ere an y o n e w h o w o rk s h ard an d p lay s b y th e ru les can b u ild a b etter life. T h e p ro m ise o f o p p o rtu n ity h as trad itio n ally b een a lu re to im m ig ran ts, m illio n s o f w h o m cam e to A m erica in search o f b etter co n d itio n s th an th ey left b eh in d in th eir h o m elan d s. B u t w h at o f all th o se p eo p le w h o se an cesto rs w ere n o t im m ig ran ts, as w e co m m o n ly u se th e term — th e m illio n s o f A m erican s w h o se fo reb ears w ere alread y liv in g in w h at is n o w th e U n ited S tates, lo n g b efo re th e first E u ro p ean s step p ed o ff th e b o at? T h e relatio n sh ip b etw een th e A m erican g o v ern m en t an d N ativ e A m erican s, th e in d ig en o u s p eo p les o f th e A m ericas, h as b een a co m p lex , co n ten tio u s, an d so m etim es trag ic o n e. A cco rd in g to th e U .S . C en su s B u reau , th e term N a tive A m erica n co m p rises tw o g ro u p s: A m erican In d ian s an d A lask a N ativ es. T o g eth er, th ese g ro u p s m ak e u p th e N ativ e A m erican p o p u latio n ; N ativ e H aw aiian s are co u n ted sep arately , b ecau se th eir N ativ e g ro u p s w ere n o t in d ig en o u s to N o rth o r S o u th A m erica. B eg in n in g in th e 1 6 th cen tu ry , A m erican In d ian s in w h at is n o w th e U n ited S tates w ere su b o rd in ated m ilitarily , cu ltu rally , an d eco n o m ically b y th e d escen d an ts o f th e E u ro p ean settlers. P rev ailin g attitu d es to w ard N ativ es am o n g early w h ite settlers w ere a m ix tu re o f co n tem p t an d fear; o n e o f A m erica’s sem in al d o cu m en ts, th e D eclaratio n o f In d ep en d en ce, refers to “m erciless In d ian sav ag es” b en t o n th e “th e u n d istin g u ish ed d estru ctio n o f all ag es, sex es, an d co n d itio n s.” C o n sisten t w ith th e v iew th at N ativ es w ere sav ag es, m an y A m erican In d ian s w ere n o t reco g n ized as U .S . citizen s u n til th e 2 0 th cen tu ry . F ro m th e early 1 9 th cen tu ry — w h en th e U .S . m ilitary b eg an fo rcib ly relo catin g N ativ e trib es to an area k n o w n as “In d ian T errito ry ,” w est o f th e M ississip p i R iv er— th ro u g h th e In d ian W ars o f th e 1 9 th an d early 2 0 th cen tu ries, th e fed eral g o v ern m en t ten d ed to treat N ativ es eith er as fo reig n ers w h o w ere p o ten tially en em ies, o r as u n civ ilized d ep en d en ts in cap ab le o f m an ag in g th eir o w n affairs. T h e g o v ern m en t’s p o licy , d u rin g th at tim e, o f restrictin g N ativ e A m erican s to sp ecific p arcels o f lan d k n o w n as reserv atio n s h ad th e effect o f sh arp ly lim itin g th e eco n o m ic o p p o rtu n ities av ailab le to N ativ es. (W ilso n , 2 0 0 0 ) A t th e sam e tim e, m isg u id ed ed u catio n al p o licies an d th e lack o f q u ality sch o o ls led to a d istru st o f p u b lic ed u catio n am o n g m an y N ativ es an d lo w lev els o f ed u catio n al attain m en t, w h ich in tu rn fu rth er lim ited eco n o m ic o p p o rtu n ity . (G iag o , 2 0 0 6 ) T h e im p act o f th ese p o licies co n tin u es to b e felt. In th e 2 1 st cen tu ry , N ativ es en jo y th e sam e p an o p ly o f leg a l rig h ts as o th er citizen s, an d fo u ro ffiv e (7 8 % ) liv e o u tsid e a reserv atio n . (O ffice o f M in o rity H ealth , 2 0 1 6 ) B u t N ativ es still ran k sig n ifican tly b elo w th e n atio n al av erag e in m an y k ey so cio eco n o m ic in d icato rs, in clu d in g h o u seh o ld in co m e, em p lo y m en t, ed u catio n al attain m en t, an d life ex p ectan cy . (U .S . C en su s B u reau , 2 0 1 2 ; In d ian H ealth S erv ice, 2 0 1 6 ) T h e h isto ry o f N ativ e A m erican s an d A lask a N ativ es clearly illu strates th at secu rin g leg al rig h ts— b y itself, a lo n g an d d ifficu lt stru g g le fo r N ativ es— is n o g u aran tee o f eco n o m ic lib erty o r su ccess. In th is th em e, w e w ill lo o k at tw o in stan ces w h ere th e rig h ts o f N ativ es cam e in to co n flict w ith th e eco n o m ic in terests o f n o n N ativ es, w ith d ifferin g resu lts. In th e 1 8 3 0 s, th e d em an d s o f w h ite settlers led to th e fo rced relo catio n o f th o u san d s o f C h ero k ee fro m th e so u th east U n ited S tates to lan d s w est o f th e M ississip p i R iv er, in a trag ic ep iso d e k n o w n as th e T rail o f T ears. In th e 1 9 6 0 s an d 1 9 7 0 s, th e lan d claim s o f th o u san d s o f A lask a N ativ es th reaten ed to d elay o r p rev en t co n stru ctio n o f th e T ran sA lask a O il P ip elin e; C o n g ress resp o n d ed b y p assin g leg islatio n th at g av e th e N ativ es m o re th an 4 0 m illio n acres o f lan d to settle th eir claim s an d set u p a sy stem o f N ativ e co rp o ratio n s th at h as h elp ed to sp u r eco n o m ic d ev elo p m en t an d red u ce p o v erty in th e N ativ e co m m u n ity . W e w ill u se th ese case stu d ies to illu strate th e co n cep t o f h isto rical co m p lex ity an d to h elp y o u u n d erstan d th e im p act th at h isto rical th in k in g can h av e o n y o u r o w n life an d career. L e a r n in g O b je c tiv e s In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u w ill: R ev iew th e h isto rical co n tex t b eh in d N ativ e A m erican s’ stru g g le fo r civ il rig h ts an d eco n o m ic o p p o rtu n ity , th e co re co n cep t o f th is th em e A p p ly d ifferen t h isto rical len ses to d ev elo p a m o re co m p lex u n d erstan d in g o f a h isto rical ev en t R e fe re n c e s G iag o , T . (2 0 0 6 ). C h ild ren L eft B eh in d : D a rk L eg a cy o f In d ia n M issio n B o a rd in g S ch o o ls. S an ta F e, N M : C lear L ig h t P u b lish ers. In d ian H ealth S erv ice, U .S . D ep artm en t o f H ealth an d H u m an S erv ices (2 0 1 6 ). D isp arities. R etriev ed fro m w w w .ih s.g o v /n ew sro o m /factsh eets/d isp arities/. N atio n al C en ter fo r E d u catio n S tatistics (2 0 1 2 ). F ast F acts: D eg rees C o n ferred b y S ex an d R ace. R etriev ed fro m h ttp s://n ces.ed .g o v /fastfacts/d isp lay .asp ?id = 7 2 O ffice o f M in o rity H ealth , U .S . D ep artm en t o f H ealth an d H u m an S erv ices (2 0 1 6 ). P ro file: A m erican In d ian /A lask a N ativ e. R etriev ed fro m m in o rity h ealth .h h s.g o v /o m h /b ro w se.asp x ?lv l= 3 & lv lid = 6 2 . U .S . C en su s B u reau (2 0 1 3 ). P o v erty R ates fo r S elected D etailed R ace an d H isp an ic G ro u p s b y S tate an d P lace: 2 0 0 7 2 0 1 1 . R etriev ed fro m w w w .cen su s.g o v /lib rary /p u b licatio n s/2 0 1 3 /acs/acsb r1 1 1 7 .h tm l. W ilso n , J. (2 0 0 0 ). T h e E a rth S h a ll W eep : A H isto ry o f N a tive A m erica . N ew Y o rk : G ro v e P ress. N a t iv e s a n d t h e L a n d A cco rd in g to th e U .S . C en su s B u reau , ab o u t 2 .9 m illio n p eo p le id en tified th em selv es as N ativ e A m erican s o r A lask a N ativ es in th e last fed eral cen su s. (A n o th er 1 4 0 ,0 0 0 id en tified th em selv es as N ativ e H aw aiian s, b u t th is g ro u p is n o t co u n ted as p art o f th e n atio n ‘s N ativ e p o p u latio n .) C o m b in ed w ith th e n u m b er o f p eo p le w h o claim N ativ e h eritag e in ad d itio n to so m e o th er racial o r eth n ic b ack g ro u n d , ab o u t 5 .2 m illio n p eo p le can b e co n sid ered N ativ es. (N o rris, et a l, 2 0 1 2 ) T h ere are cu rren tly 5 6 6 N ativ e trib es th at are reco g n ized b y th e fed eral g o v ern m en t; th is fig u re in clu d es ro u g h ly 2 3 0 trib es o f A lask a N ativ es. (N atio n al C o n g ress o f A m erican In d ian s, 2 0 1 6 ) N ativ e A m erican s an d A lask a N ativ es are b eliev ed to b e d escen d ed fro m A sian s w h o cam e to A lask a fro m S ib eria ro u g h ly 1 2 ,0 0 0 y ears ag o , trav elin g acro ss a lan d b rid g e th at trav ersed w h at is n o w th e B erin g S trait. (W an g , et a l, 2 0 0 7 ) T h is im ag e sh o w s th e sh rin k in g o f th e B erin g lan d b rid g e o v er th e last 2 1 ,0 0 0 y ears. (v isit th e o n lin e learn in g reso u rce fo r an an im ated v ersio n o f th is im ag e) (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) B erin g S trait. (W an g , et a l, 2 0 0 7 ) E stim ates o f th e N ativ e p o p u latio n in N o rth A m erica at th e tim e o f C o lu m b u s’s first v o y ag e ran g e fro m a lo w o f 2 .1 m illio n to a h ig h o f 1 8 m illio n . F o llo w in g th e arriv al o f th e E u ro p ean s, h o w ev er, N ativ e p o p u latio n s w ere d ecim ated b y d iseases fro m E u ro p e— in clu d in g sm allp o x , ty p h u s, m easles, an d in flu en za— fo r w h ich th e N ativ es h ad n o n atu ral im m u n ity . (T h o rn to n , 1 9 9 0 ) R elatio n s b etw een N ativ es an d E u ro p ean settlers d u rin g th e C o lo n ial P erio d — th at is, fro m th e early 1 7 th cen tu ry th ro u g h th e A m erican R ev o lu tio n — w ere m ix ed . S o m e trib es trad ed w ith th e settlers an d co ex isted p eacefu lly w ith th em ; o th ers fo rcefu lly resisted attem p ts b y th e E u ro p ean s to en cro ach o n th eir territo ry . W h ile m an y h isto ry tex ts fo cu s o n co n flicts b etw een N ativ es an d th e E n g lish — in clu d in g th e P o w h atan W ars in V irg in ia an d K in g P h ilip ‘s W ar in M assach u setts— th ere w as also co n sid erab le co n flict in th e S p an ish h eld S o u th w est; in 1 6 8 0 , P o p é’s R eb ellio n , an u p risin g b y P u eb lo N ativ es, d ro v e th e S p an ish o u t o f N ew M ex ico fo r a d o zen y ears. (R iley , 1 9 9 5 ) S o m e o f th ese co n flicts aro se fro m attem p ts to “C h ristian ize” o r “civ ilize” th e N ativ es; o th ers, su ch as th e F ren ch an d In d ian W ar, fo u n d so m e N ativ e trib es fo rm in g allian ces w ith o n e g ro u p o f E u ro p ean settlers ag ain st an o th er. B u t arg u ab ly th e m o st freq u en t so u rce o f co n flict w as la n d . T rad itio n al N ativ e attitu d es to w ard lan d w ere sig n ifican tly d ifferen t fro m th o se th at ch aracterize A m erican so ciety to d ay . In N ativ e cu ltu re, lan d w as seen as a so u rce o f life; it w as so m eth in g to b e sh ared co m m u n ally , n o t o w n ed b y an y in d iv id u al. W h ile w e can ‘t g en eralize ab o u t th e ex p ectatio n s an d u n d erstan d in g o f a ll E u ro p ean settlers, it is clear th at m an y o f th em saw lan d as a co m m o d ity th at co u ld b e b o u g h t an d so ld ; th ey rev ered th e id ea o f p riv ate p ro p erty , a co n cep t th at d id n o t ev en ex ist in N ativ e cu ltu re. (C ro n o n , 2 0 0 3 ) T h is fu n d am en tal d isju n ctio n o f b eliefs p laced settlers an d N ativ es at o d d s fro m th e earliest co lo n ial d ay s. C o n flicts g rew m o re acu te after th e A m erican R ev o lu tio n , w h en th e n ew A m erican g o v ern m en t ad o p ted a series o f p o licies aim ed at d isp lacin g N ativ es to m ak e ro o m fo r a rap id ly ex p an d in g n atio n al p o p u latio n . In th e late 1 8 th an d early 1 9 th cen tu ry , su d d en ly , N ativ es w ere n o t arg u in g ab o u t lan d w ith iso lated g ro u p s o f settlers o r ex p lo rers, o r try in g to p lay o ff th e B ritish ag ain st th e F ren ch ; th ey w ere co n fro n ted b y a u n ified n atio n al g o v ern m en t th at w as p u rsu in g a co n sisten t p o licy an d w h ich h ad th e p o ten tial to b ack u p th at p o licy w ith m ilitary fo rce. C o n flicts o v er lan d o ccu rred o n ev ery v irtu ally all o f th e n ew n atio n ‘s fro n tiers. O n e area th at attracted a g reat d eal o f atten tio n in th e early 1 9 th cen tu ry , b o th fro m p ro sp ectiv e settlers an d fro m o fficials in W ash in g to n , w as th e S o u th east U n ited S tates— G eo rg ia, F lo rid a, A lab am a, an d M ississip p i. T h is in clu d ed th e trib al lan d s o f th e [?]F iv e C iv ilized T rib es[/?]— w h ich d u rin g th e co lo n ial era h ad en jo y ed relativ ely p eacefu l relatio n s w ith E u ro p ean settlers— as w ell as sev eral o th er trib es. (W illiam s, 1 9 7 9 ) T h e S o u th east w as d esirab le to settlers b ecau se th e lan d w as fertile fo r farm in g , w ith co n d itio n s id eal fo r th e p ro d u ctio n o f co tto n . (T h e o p en in g o f th e S o u th east to co tto n farm in g b y n o n N ativ e settlers later p ro v ed to b e a m ajo r facto r in th e d ram atic in crease in co tto n p ro d u ctio n in th e S o u th b etw een 1 8 3 0 an d 1 8 5 0 .) T h e d isco v ery o f g o ld in G eo rg ia in 1 8 2 9 o n ly in creased th e lan d ‘s v alu e, in th e ey es o f p ro sp ectiv e w h ite settlers. (G reg g , 2 0 0 9 ) A n 1 8 3 4 p o rtrait o f P eter P itch ly n n , later ch ief o f th e C h o ctaw N atio n . (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) B etsy B ro w n S tep h en s, p ictu red h ere in 1 9 0 3 , su rv iv ed th e T rail o f T ears as a teen ag er. (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) P ressu re to acq u ire th ese trib al lan d s resu lted in p assag e o f th e In d ian R em o v al A ct in 1 8 3 0 , w h ich au th o rized th e P resid en t to n eg o tiate w ith N ativ e trib es ab o u t th eir rem o v al— essen tially to o ffer th em fed eral lan d w est o f th e M ississip p i R iv er in retu rn fo r th eir trib al h o m elan d s east o f th e M ississip p i. P resid en t A n d rew Jack so n , a fo rcefu l p ro p o n en t o f su ch lan d trad es, sig n ed th e In d ian R em o v al A ct in to law an d b eg an p ressu rin g th e trib es to sig n lan d sw ap treaties. S o m e g ro u p s o f N ativ es w en t m o re w illin g ly th an o th ers. T h e C h o c ta w In S ep tem b er 1 8 3 0 , rep resen tativ es o f th e C h o ctaw N atio n sig n ed th e T reaty o f D an cin g R ab b it C reek , ced in g th eir trib al lan d s in M ississip p i in retu rn fo r a sim ilar am o u n t o f lan d in In d ian T errito ry , in w h at is n o w eastern O k lah o m a. A b o u t 1 5 ,0 0 0 C h o ctaw m o v ed w est; an o th er 5 0 0 0 o r so rem ain ed in M ississip p i an d b ecam e U .S . citizen s, w ith each fam ily receiv in g a relativ ely sm all, 6 4 0 acre p arcel o f lan d . (S atz, 1 9 8 6 ) T h e C h e r o k e e T h e C h ero k ee N atio n , lo cated p rim arily in G eo rg ia, N o rth C aro lin a, an d T en n essee, resisted rem o v al m o re v ig o ro u sly . C h ero k ee lead ers, facin g p ressu re n o t ju st fro m th e fed eral g o v ern m en t b u t also th e state g o v ern m en t o f G eo rg ia, resp o n d ed w ith law su its as w ell as p o litical lo b b y in g . B u t d iv isio n s w ith in th e C h ero k ee lead ersh ip u n d erm in ed th eir resistan ce; o n e factio n , w h ich saw rem o v al as in ev itab le, n eg o tiated th e T reaty o f N ew E ch o ta (1 8 3 5 ), w h ich w as q u ick ly ren o u n ced b y lead ers o f th e o th er factio n . T h e fed eral g o v ern m en t reco g n ized th e treaty as v alid , h o w ev er, an d in 1 8 3 8 sen t fed eral tro o p s to b eg in th e fo rced relo catio n o f th e C h ero k ee to In d ian C o u n try . A n estim ated 4 ,0 0 0 C h ero k ee d ied o n th e th o u san d m ile trek w est. (P ru ch a, 1 9 8 4 ) M ican o p y w as th e p rin cip al ch ief o f th e S em in o le d u rin g th e S eco n d S em in o le W ar. (P D ) (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) T h e S e m in o le In F lo rid a, th e S em in o le— w h o h ad alread y sig n ed a treaty g iv in g u p th eir lan d in retu rn fo r a reserv atio n in th e cen tral p art o f w h at w as th en th e F lo rid a T errito ry — fo rcefu lly resisted effo rts to relo cate th em a seco n d tim e, to In d ian T errito ry . T h e resu ltin g S eco n d S em in o le W ar lasted fro m 1 8 3 5 to 1 8 4 2 an d w as arg u ab ly th e b lo o d iest o f th e 1 9 th cen tu ry “In d ian w ars.” (L an caster, 1 9 9 4 ) B u t in th e en d , th e v ast m ajo rity o f S em in o les w ere fo rcib ly relo cated to th e w est; W ash in g to n h ad p rev ailed , an d th e S o u th eastern U n ited S tates w as n o lo n g er N ativ e lan d . R e fe re n c e s C ro n o n , W . (2 0 0 3 ). C h a n g es in th e L a n d : In d ia n s, C o lo n ists, a n d th e E co lo g y o f C o lo n ia l N ew E n g la n d rev . ed . N ew Y o rk : H ill an d W an g . G reg g , M . (2 0 0 9 ). “S h o rtch an g ed : U n co v erin g th e V alu e o f P reR em o v al C h ero k ee P ro p erty .” T h e C h ro n icles o f O kla h o m a , V o l. 8 7 (F all 2 0 0 9 ), 3 2 0 3 3 5 . L an caster, J. (1 9 9 4 ). R em o va l A ftersh o ck: T h e S em in o les’ S tru g g les to S u rvive in th e W est, 1 8 3 6 1 8 6 6 . K n o x v ille, T N : U n iv ersity o f T en n essee P ress. N atio n al C o n g ress o f A m erican In d ian s (2 0 1 6 ). A n In tro d u ctio n to In d ian N atio n s in th e U n ited S tates. R etriev ed fro m w w w .n cai.o rg /ab o u ttrib es/in d ian s_ 1 0 1 .p d f, Ju n e 8 , 2 0 1 6 . N o rris, T . et a l (2 0 1 2 ). 2 0 1 0 C en su s B riefs. R etriev ed fro m w w w .cen su s.g o v /h isto ry /p d f/c2 0 1 0 b r1 0 .p d f P ru ch a, F . (1 9 8 4 ). T h e G rea t F a th er: T h e U n ited S ta tes G o vern m en t a n d th e A m erica n In d ia n s. L in co ln , N E : U n iv ersity o f N eb rask a P ress. R iley , C . (1 9 9 5 ). R io d el N o rte: P eo p le o f th e U p p er R io G ra n d e fro m E a rliest T im es to th e P u eb lo R evo lt. S alt L ak e C ity : U n iv ersity o f U tah P ress. S atz, R . (1 9 8 6 ). “T h e M ississip p i C h o ctaw : F ro m th e R em o v al T reaty to th e F ed eral A g en cy “. In W ells an d T u b b y , ed . A fter R em o va l, T h e C h o cta w in M ississip p i. Jack so n , M S : U n iv ersity P ress o f M ississip p i. T h o rn to n , R u ssell (1 9 9 0 ). A m erica n In d ia n H o lo ca u st a n d S u rviva l: A P o p u la tio n H isto ry S in ce 1 4 9 2 . N o rm an , O K : U n iv ersity o f O k lah o m a P ress. W an g , S . et a l (2 0 0 7 ). “G en etic V ariatio n an d P o p u latio n S tru ctu re in N ativ e A m erican s”. P L o S G en etics. V o l. 3 , N o . 1 1 , 1 8 5 . W illiam s, W . (1 9 7 9 ). “S o u th eastern In d ian s b efo re R em o v al, P reh isto ry , C o n tact, D eclin e” in S o u th ea stern In d ia n s: S in ce th e R em o va l E ra . A th en s, G A : U n iv ersity o f G eo rg ia P ress. T h e m e : T h in k in g A b o u t H is t o r y | L e a r n in g B lo c k 7 -2 : H is t o r ic a l C o m p le x it y C o m p le x it y M a d e S im p le T h e p ast w as m essy , an d th in g s w ere n ev er as sim p le as w e’d lik e to th in k . T h at’s th e u n co m p licated tru th b eh in d th e co n cep t o f h isto rical co m p lex ity . C o m p lex ity is th e last o f th e “5 C ‘s o f H isto rical T h in k in g ” th at w e first en co u n tered b ack in T h em e: A p p ro ach es to H isto ry : C h an g e, C o n tex t, C au sality , C o n tin g en cy , an d C o m p lex ity . C o m p lex ity m ean s th at h isto rical ev en ts rarely h av e sim p le ex p lan atio n s. It also m ean s th at it’s to o sim p listic to d escrib e a h isto rical ev en t in term s o f ab so lu tes— to say th at so m eth in g is a lw a ys tru e, o r th at n o o n e ever esp o u sed a certain p o sitio n . A b so lu tes are fo r p eo p le w h o see th e w o rld in b lack an d w h ite; h isto rian s rev el in all th e sh ad es o f g rey th at co m e w ith th e stu d y o f co m p lex ev en ts. In th is learn in g b lo ck , w e’ll lo o k at so m e o f th e facto rs th at co n trib u te to h isto rical co m p lex ity — an d w e’ll also see h o w o n e h isto rical ev en t, fam iliar to all, w as actu ally m u ch m o re co m p licated th an m an y o f u s m ay th in k . L e a r n in g O b je c tiv e s In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u w ill: A n aly ze d ifferen t facto rs th at co n trib u te to h isto rical co m p lex ity A p p ly d ifferen t h isto rical len ses to p ro d u ce a m o re co m p lex p ictu re o f a h isto rical ev en t F a c t o r s T h a t L e a d t o C o m p le x it y O n e o f th e p rin cip al g o als o f teach in g h isto ry is “to p rep are stu d en ts to to lerate co m p lex ity , to ad ap t to n ew situ atio n s, an d to resist th e first an sw er th at co m es to m in d .” (W in eb u rg , 2 0 1 0 ) O k ay , so h isto ry is co m p lex — b u t w h y? O n e reaso n is th at th ere are so m an y d ifferen t h isto rical len ses th at can b e ap p lied to an y g iv en h isto rical ev en t. A h isto rian w h o ‘s d o in g research (as y o u are d o in g fo r th is co u rse) w ill ty p ically lo o k at a h isto rical ev en t th ro u g h o n e len s. L et’s say y o u ‘re research in g th e F ren ch an d In d ian W ar; y o u m ig h t u se th e len s o f m ilitary h isto ry to lo o k at th e relativ e sig n ifican ce o f so m e k ey b attles. F air en o u g h , b u t th e F ren ch an d In d ian W ar w as m o re th an ju st a series o f b attles. It w as also an o u tg ro w th o f th e E u ro p ean w id e co n flict k n o w n as th e S ev en Y ears’ W ar, w h ich y o u co u ld lo o k at th ro u g h th e len s o f d ip lo m atic h isto ry . It w as sp ark ed b y co n flicts b etw een F ren ch an d B ritish trad ers in th e O h io V alley , w h ich y o u co u ld lo o k at th ro u g h th e len s o f eco n o m ic h isto ry . T h e allian ce b etw een th e F ren ch an d In d ian s w as an o u tg ro w th o f th e ex cep tio n ally clo se relatio n s th at th e tw o g ro u p s h ad sh ared fro m th e earliest co lo n ial d ay s— far clo ser th an th e relatio n s b etw een N ativ es an d th e B ritish — w h ich y o u co u ld lo o k at th ro u g h th e len s o f so cial h isto ry . F in ally , it resu lted in th e tak eo v er o f h eav ily C ath o lic F ren ch Q u eb ec b y th e P ro testan t B ritish , w h o g u aran teed F ren ch C ath o lics in Q u eb ec th e rig h t to p ractice th eir faith — an issu e y o u co u ld lo o k at th ro u g h th e len s o f relig io u s h isto ry . T h e p o in t is th at to g et a co m p lete p ictu re o f an y h isto rical ev en t, y o u ‘v e g o t to lo o k at it th ro u g h m u ltip le len ses. A n d th at n ecessarily m ak es th e p ictu re m o re co m p lex an d m o re d ifficu lt to d escrib e in sim p le term s. H isto ry can also raise q u estio n s o f m o ral co m p lex ity . T h at is to say , w h en y o u ‘re stu d y in g h isto ry it’s n o t alw ay s easy to tell th e “g o o d g u y s” fro m th e “b ad g u y s,” b ecau se m o st p eo p le are n eith er w h o lly g o o d n o r w h o lly ev il. A n d so m etim es, try in g to fig u re o u t w h o th e g o o d g u y s are (o r w h eth er th ere are an y g o o d g u y s at all) can o n ly d istract y o u fro m th e task o f h isto rical an aly sis. C o m p lex ity also arises b ecau se o f th e n atu re o f cau sality . H isto rical ev en ts alm o st alw ay s h av e m o re th an o n ce cau se, an d th o se cau ses m ay b e eith er p ro x im ate o r u ltim ate; so m e m ay b e n ecessary w h ile o th ers are co n trib u to ry . A scrib in g a h isto rical ev en t to ju st o n e cau se is a sim p listic ap p ro ach th at is u su ally m istak en . H isto rical co m p lex ity is also a fu n ctio n o f co n tin g en cy . Ju st as ev en ts alm o st alw ay s h av e m u ltip le cau ses, th ey also h av e m u ltip le co n seq u en ces; each h isto rical ev en t sets in m o tio n m an y o th er ev en ts, w h ich in tu rn cau se still m o re ev en ts to tak e p lace. D escrib in g a h isto rical ev en t in term s o f ju st o n e o f its o u tco m es d o es n o t p resen t th e fu ll p ictu re o f its h isto rical sig n ifican ce. R e fe re n c e s W in eb u rg , S . (2 0 1 0 ). H isto rical T h in k in g : M em o rizin g F acts an d S tu ff? T P S Q u a rterly, V o l. 3 , N o . 1 (W in ter, 2 0 1 0 ). R etriev ed fro m w w w .lo c.g o v /teach ers/tp s/q u arterly /h isto rical_ th in k in g /article.h tm l. T h e cam p aig n s o f th e F ren ch an d In d ian W ar. (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) A n id ealized v iew o f th e “first T h an k sg iv in g ” (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) T h a n k s g iv in g : A C o m p le x S t o r y M o st A m erican s are fam iliar w ith th e sto ry o f th e first T h an k sg iv in g : h o w a frien d ly N ativ e n am ed S q u an to b efrien d ed th e P ilg rim s at P ly m o u th C o lo n y , tau g h t th em h o w to p lan t co rn , an d in tro d u ced th em to o th er N ativ es. A fter a d ifficu lt w in ter, th e P ilg rim s b ro u g h t in a g o o d h arv est in 1 6 2 1 an d in v ited th e N ativ es to jo in th em in a g reat feast, to th an k G o d fo r th eir su rv iv al. T h at’s th e fam iliar sto ry , an y w ay . H isto rian s arg u e w ith sev eral elem en ts o f th at d escrip tio n — startin g w ith th e id ea th at th is w as th e first T h an k sg iv in g . T h e S p an ish ex p lo rer F ran cisco V azq u ez d e C o ro n ad o an d h is m en h eld a th an k sg iv in g celeb ratio n in w h at is n o w T ex as in 1 5 4 1 ; settlers in M ain e (1 6 0 7 ) an d V irg in ia (1 6 1 0 ) also h eld th an k sg iv in g celeb ratio n s w ell b efo re th e 1 6 2 1 feast at P ly m o u th . (L ib rary o f C o n g ress, 2 0 1 6 ) T h ere’s also th e fact th at th e P ilg rim s d id n ‘t call th eir celeb ratio n a “th an k sg iv in g “; it w as sim p ly a “h arv est feast.” T h e P ilg rim s w ere P u ritan s, m em b ers o f a d issen tin g sect o f E n g lish P ro testan ts w h o so u g h t to “p u rify ,” o r refo rm , th e C h u rch o f E n g lan d . T o th em , th e term “th an k sg iv in g ” h ad a sp ecific m ean in g : it w as a relig io u s h o lid ay , a d ay o f “p ray er an d p io u s h u m iliatio n ,” p ro claim ed to m ark so m e p articu larly au sp icio u s ev en t. T h e first “th an k sg iv in g ” p ro claim ed b y th e P ilg rim s w as in 1 6 2 3 , to m ark th e en d o f a sev ere d ro u g h t. (P lim o th P lan tatio n , 2 0 1 6 ) T h e h o lid ay th at w e call T h an k sg iv in g h ad its ro o ts in th e C iv il W ar. A lth o u g h th e F irst C o n tin en tal C o n g ress d eclared a d ay o f n atio n al th an k sg iv in g d u rin g th e R ev o lu tio n ary W ar, an d P resid en t G eo rg e W ash in g to n d id lik ew ise in 1 7 8 9 , th e h o lid ay d id n o t b eco m e a n atio n al fix tu re u n til 1 8 6 3 . In th at y ear, P resid en t A b rah am L in co ln p ro claim ed n o t o n e b u t tw o d ay s o f T h an k sg iv in g — th e first, in A u g u st, th at celeb rated th e U n io n v icto ry at G etty sb u rg an d th e seco n d , o n th e last T h u rsd ay in N o v em b er, th at estab lish ed th e cu rren t n atio n al trad itio n . (P lim o th P lan tatio n , 2 0 1 6 ) B u t ev en if th e “h arv est feast” at P ly m o u th w asn ‘t th e first T h an k sg iv in g — o r really a T h an k sg iv in g at all, as w e n o w k n o w th e term — th e h isto ry o f th at ev en t, its cau ses an d co n seq u en ces, p ro v id es a m o re co m p lex p ictu re o f relatio n s b etw een N ativ es an d th e early E n g lish settlers in N ew E n g lan d . V id e o T r a n sc r ip t: T h e F ir st T h a n k sg iv in g T h e sto ry o f th e first T h an k sg iv in g feast in 1 6 2 1 is fam iliar to m o st o f u s. A co u p le o f E n g lish sp eak in g n ativ es n am ed S q u an to an d S am o set b efrien d th e P ilg rim s o f P ly m o u th . S q u an to teach es th e P ilg rim s h o w to p lan t co rn an d , after th e h arv est co m es in , th e n ativ es an d th e P ilg rim s jo in to g eth er fo r a feast. It’s a h eartw arm in g sto ry , really , b u t m o st h isto rian s w o u ld ag ree th at it n ev er h ap p en ed th at w ay . F o r starters, it certain ly w asn ‘t th e first. T h ere h ad b een T h an k sg iv in g celeb ratio n s in N o rth A m erica w ell b efo re 1 6 2 1 am o n g S p an ish ex p lo rers an d settlers in T ex as an d F lo rid a an d am o n g th e Jam esto w n settlers in V irg in ia. S eco n d , th e P ilg rim s w eren ‘t m u ch fo r feastin g an d m erry m ak in g . T h ey w ere P u ritan s, an d to th em a T h an k sg iv in g w as p rim arily a d ay o f p ray er an d relig io u s o b serv an ce d eclared to ex p ress th an k s to G o d fo r so m e sp ecific ev en t. W h ile th ere are reco rd s o f m an y d ay s o f T h an k sg iv in g b ein g d eclared in P ly m o u th an d M assach u setts B ay co lo n ies in th e 1 7 th cen tu ry , h ard ly an y o f th em in v o lv ed a feast. A n d th ere’s n o clear reco rd o f o n e in 1 6 2 1 . M an y h isto rian s, in fact, b eliev e th at trad itio n al T h an k sg iv in g sto ry is a h isto rical m y th th at fo r a v ariety o f reaso n s P resid en t A b rah am L in co ln seized o n w h en h e w as try in g to u n ify th e N o rth d u rin g th e C iv il W ar. B u t d o es th at m ean th at S q u an to , S am o set, an d all th e o th er n ativ es, are ju st a fig m en t o f o u r h isto rical im ag in atio n s? H ard ly . T h ese w ere real p eo p le an d th eir sto ry is m o re co m p lex th an m o st A m erican s realize. F o r starters, th ere’s S q u an to . H is n am e in th e W am p an o ag lan g u ag e w as T esq u an tu m , w h ich tran slates ro u g h ly to “d iv in e rag e.” H o w d id h e ju st h ap p en to sp eak E n g lish , an d w h y d id h e ap p ro ach th e P ilg rim s so read ily ? T isq u an tu m w as b o rn in a P atu x et v illag e in w h at is n o w so u th eastern M assach u setts. B u t as a y o u n g m an , h e w as tak en cap tiv e b y E n g lish ex p lo rers an d b ro u g h t b ack to E n g lan d as a slav e. H e learn ed E n g lish an d ev en tu ally g ain ed h is freed o m . C lo se to fifteen y ears later, as a m em b er o f a B ritish ex p ed itio n , h e fin ally retu rn ed to h is h o m elan d , o n ly to d isco v er th at th e P atu x et h ad b een co m p letely w ip ed o u t y ears earlier b y an ep id em ic o f sm allp o x o r a sim ilar d isease o f E u ro p ean o rig in . T isq u an tu m b ecam e frien d ly w ith M assaso it, th e G ran d S ach em o f th e W am p an o ag p eo p le. T h e W am p an o ag , lik e th e P atu x et, h ad b een d ev astated b y d isease, an d th ey w ere b ein g in creasin g ly th reaten ed b y th e N arrag an sett p eo p le o f w h at is n o w R h o d e Islan d . A lo n g w ith an o th er E n g lish sp eak in g n ativ e n am ed S am o set, T isq u an tu m acted as th e in term ed iary b etw een M assaso it an d th e p ilg rim lead ers as th ey fo rg ed a p o litical allian ce. A treaty b etw een th e P ilg rim s an d W am p an o ag , sig n ed o n M arch 2 2 , 1 6 2 1 , co m m itted b o th sid es to a m u tu al d efen se allian ce ag ain st th eir co m m o n en em ies. T h e allian ce b en efited b o th sid es fo r a w h ile, b u t th e lo n g term co n seq u en ces w ere n o t so felicito u s. R elatio n s b etw een th e n ativ es an d th e settlers b eg an to fray as m o re E n g lish m en , b o th P u ritan s an d n o n relig io u s settlers, arriv ed in N ew E n g lan d , tip p in g th e b alan ce o f p o w er in fav o r o f th e E n g lish . M assaso it k ep t th e W am p an o ag n eu tral in th e P eq u o t W ar o f th e late 1 6 3 0 s, in w h ich h u n d red s o f n ativ es w ere k illed an d h u n d red s m o re w ere tak en cap tiv e an d so ld in to slav ery . B u t m an y o th er W am p an o ag w ere o u trag ed b y E n g lish atro cities. A fter M assaso it d ied , h is so n M etaco m et, o ften k n o w n b y h is E n g lish n am e K in g P h ilip , b ecam e lead er o f th e W am p an o ag . In 1 6 7 5 , after th e E n g lish ex ecu ted th ree W am p an o ag fo r th e m u rd er o f an o th er n ativ e, M etaco m et stru ck b ack . In an allian ce w ith th eir fo rm er en em ies, th e N arrag an sett, th e W am p an o ag en jo y ed so m e early b attlefield su ccesses in w h at b ecam e k n o w n as K in g P h ilip ‘s W ar. B u t th e allian ce b etw een th e W am p an o ag an d N arrag an sett so o n u n rav eled , an d b y 1 6 7 6 th e w ar, th e b lo o d iest co n fro n tatio n b etw een n ativ es an d settlers in th e h isto ry o f N ew E n g lan d , w as all b u t o v er. M etaco m et w as k illed in Ju n e o f th at y ear. B y th e en d o f th e w ar, th e n ativ e p o p u latio n o f so u th ern N ew E n g lan d h ad b een red u ced b y h alf, an d th e W am p an o ag an d N arrag an sett h ad v irtu ally ceased to ex ist. In late Ju n e o f 1 6 7 6 , after a series o f m ilitary su ccesses b y th e E n g lish , th e g o v ern in g co u n sel o f th e P u ritan to w n o f C h arlesto w n , M assach u setts, d ecid ed to celeb rate th e co m in g en d o f “th e p resen t w ar w ith th e h eath en n ativ es o f th is lan d .” T o m ark th e o ccasio n , o f co u rse, th ey d eclared a d ay o f T h an k sg iv in g . R e fe re n c e s A P u ritan ‘s M in d (2 0 1 6 ). T h e F irst T h an k sg iv in g . R etriev ed fro m w w w .ap u ritan sm in d .co m /th ech ristian w alk /th e firstth an k sg iv in g /, Ju n e 1 4 , 2 0 1 6 . L ib rary o f C o n g ress (2 0 1 6 ). T h an k sg iv in g T im elin e. R etriev ed fro m w w w .lo c.g o v /teach ers/classro o m m aterials/ p resen tatio n san d activ ities/p resen tatio n s/th an k sg iv in g /tim elin e/1 5 4 1 .h tm l. Ju n e 1 3 , 2 0 1 6 . P lim o th P lan tatio n (2 0 1 6 ). T h an k sg iv in g H isto ry . R etriev ed fro m w w w .p lim o th .o rg /learn /m u ltim ed iareferen ce lib rary /read articlesan d w ritin g s/th an k sg iv in g h isto ry . Ju n e 1 3 , 2 0 1 6 . T h e m e : T h in k in g A b o u t H is t o r y | L e a r n in g B lo c k 7 -3 : P u t t in g It A ll T o g e t h e r In T h em e: A n aly zin g H isto ry , y o u learn ed ab o u t th e d ifferen t w ay s y o u can in clu d e ev id en ce in y o u r essay to su p p o rt y o u r arg u m en t. A n h isto rical research p ap er req u ires in fo rm atio n fro m d ifferen t so u rces to su p p o rt y o u r th esis, b u t y o u n eed to m ak e su re th at m o st o f th e p ap er is in y o u r o w n w o rd s. If y o u rely to o h eav ily o n y o u r ev id en ce, y o u r v o ice an d y o u r arg u m en t w ill g et lo st in o th ers’ w o rd s. U n d erstan d in g h o w to u se an d in co rp o rate ev id en ce w ill b e h elp fu l in o th er h isto ry co u rses an d fu tu re classes y o u tak e at S N H U . K n o w in g h o w to su p p o rt an arg u m en t effectiv ely is also v alu ab le in th e real w o rld . Y o u w ill su b m it th e first d raft o f y o u r essay at th e en d o f L earn in g B lo ck 4 . In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u sh o u ld p lan to d ev o te at least o n e to tw o h o u rs to w o rk in g o n y o u r essay . L e a r n in g O b je c tiv e s In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u w ill: In co rp o rate h isto rical ev id en ce to su p p o rt y o u r an aly sis U se a citatio n w izard to en su re y o u h av e accu rately fo rm atted y o u r A P A citatio n s Q u estio n th e w ay y o u r research h as g iv en y o u a m o re co m p lex v iew o f y o u r h isto rical ev en t B e s t P r a c t ic e s W h en w ritin g y o u r h isto rical an aly sis essay , it is n ecessary to in teg rate so u rces in a w ay th at m ak es it clear w h ich th o u g h ts are y o u rs an d w h ich th o u g h ts co m e fro m y o u r so u rces. R em em b er to fo cu s o n y o u r id eas an d arg u m en t an d b e su re n o t to o v eru se so u rce m aterial. E v id en ce is n ecessary to su p p o rt y o u r th esis statem en t, b u t y o u r en tire p ap er sh o u ld n o t b e so m eo n e else’s w o rd s. W h en y o u u se o th er p eo p le’s w o rd s o r id eas, it’s essen tial th at y o u cite y o u r so u rces. F ailu re to d o so co u ld leav e y o u o p en to an accu satio n o f p lag iarism , w h ich is th e u se o f so m eo n e else’s w o rd s o r id eas w ith o u t ack n o w led g in g th at p erso n ‘s au th o rsh ip . P lag iarism d o esn ‘t h av e to in v o lv e w o rd fo rw o rd co p y in g fro m an o th er au th o r; sim p ly u sin g sim ilar id eas an d p h rases, w ith o u t attrib u tio n , is en o u g h to lan d y o u in d eep tro u b le. T h e b est w ay to av o id th at k in d o f p ro b lem is to m ak e su re th at all o f y o u r so u rces are p ro p erly cited . T h ere are so m e ru les y o u can fo llo w to m ak e su re th at y o u in teg rate so u rces in to y o u r w ritin g in a w ay th at h elp s y o u r au d ien ce u n d erstan d h o w each so u rce su p p o rts y o u r p o in t. C ite o fte n N o t ev ery sen ten ce in a p ap er n eed s to h av e a citatio n . It is o n ly n ecessary to cite o ften en o u g h to m ak e clear b ey o n d d o u b t w h ere y o u r in fo rm atio n is co m in g fro m . If th e first sen ten ce o f a p arag rap h cites G o n zalez an d D u tt, y o u w o u ld n ‘t n eed to cite th e v ery n ex t sen ten ce; citatio n s sh o u ld b e p laced reg u larly th ro u g h o u t p arag rap h s, h o w ev er. In ad d itio n , y o u w o u ld n eed a citatio n n ear th e en d o f th e p arag rap h an d at th e b eg in n in g o f th e n ex t p arag rap h . E v en if G o n zalez an d D u tt are m en tio n ed b y n am e later in th at p arag rap h , th e y ear d o es n o t n eed to b e in clu d ed b ecau se th e so u rce is alread y clear. If an o th er so u rce is cited b etw een tw o referen ces to G o n zalez an d D u tt, b o th G o n zalez an d D u tt m en tio n s n eed to in clu d e th e y ear, w h eth er in p aren th etical citatio n s o r b len d ed in to th e tex t. In th at ex am p le, th e C lark stu d y in terv en es b etw een th e tw o m en tio n s o f G o n zalez an d D u tt’s w o rk , so th e read er n eed s to b e rem in d ed w h ich G o n zalez an d D u tt stu d y is m ean t. F o u r p a r ts A P A fo rm at req u ires fo u r p arts to a citatio n : 1 ) an in tro d u cto ry p h rase, 2 ) th e p arap h rase o r q u o tatio n u sed as ev id en ce, 3 ) an in tex t referen ce, an d 4 ) a referen ce p ag e citatio n . Y o u w ill learn m o re ab o u t th e sp ecifics o f A P A sty le citatio n s at p a g e 2 o f th is learn in g b lo ck . In th e ex am p les b elo w , th e in tro d u ctio n is y ello w , th e p arap h rase o r q u o tatio n u sed as ev id en ce is p in k , an d th e in tex t referen ce is b lu e. T h e referen ce citatio n fo llo w s. G o n zalez an d D u tt’s (2 0 1 0 ) research o n d ecisio n m ak in g is p art o f a tu rn to w ard n ew m o d els. In th at research , th ey fo u n d th at o ld m o d els are in su fficien t fo r real p ro g ress in th e field . It w as also m ad e clear th at . . . G o n zalez an d D u tt’s (2 0 1 0 ) research o n d ecisio n m ak in g is p art o f a tu rn to w ard n ew m o d els. C lark (2 0 0 9 ), h o w ev er, tak es a d ifferen t tack . G o n zalez an d D u tt (2 0 1 0 ) arg u e th at . . . A cco rd in g to A llen (2 0 0 7 ), th im ero sal is a p reserv ativ e th at h elp ed k eep v accin es asep tic an d co n tain s m ercu ry — 4 9 .5 % b y w eig h t. R eferen ces A llen , A . (2 0 0 7 ). V a ccin e: T h e co n tro versia l sto ry o f m ed icin e’s g rea test lifesa ver. N ew Y o rk , N Y : W . W . N o rto n & C o m p an y , In c. T h e list o f in tro d u cto ry w o rd s b elo w w ill h elp y o u in teg rate y o u r q u o tatio n s an d p arap h rases in to y o u r sen ten ces. P r o v id e c o n te x t C reatin g in tex t referen ces isn ‘t ju st a m atter o f fo rm attin g y o u r p aren th etical referen ces co rrectly — th o u g h th at’s certain ly a co n cern . W h en in sertin g an in tex t referen ce, y o u n eed to g iv e y o u r read er en o u g h co n tex t so th at h e o r sh e u n d erstan d s w h eth er y o u are q u o tin g o r p arap h rasin g w o rd s o r id eas. R ead ers also n eed to u n d erstan d w h y y o u are citin g an o th er au th o r: A re y o u g iv in g v o ice to a co u n terarg u m en t? O r are y o u p ro v id in g ev id en ce fo r a m ajo r p o in t? S ig n al to y o u r read er w h y y o u are citin g b y u sin g in tro d u cto ry p h rases, su ch as th e o n e h ig h lig h ted in th e ex cerp t b elo w : G alan ti (2 0 0 4 ) asserts, “In so m e cu ltu res, p art o f th e ‘jo b ‘ o f th e fam ily is to m ak e su re th at th e n u rses are sp en d in g en o u g h tim e carin g fo r th eir lo v ed o n e” (p . 8 7 ). R eferen ces G alan te, G . A . (2 0 0 4 ). C a rin g fo r p a tien ts fro m d ifferen t cu ltu res. P h ilad elp h ia, P A : U n iv ersity o f P en n sy lv an ia P ress. I n tr o d u c to r y w o r d s ack n o w led g es co n clu d es elu cid ates o ffers ad m its co n ten d s ex p resses p resen ts ad v ises criticizes illu strates refu tes ag rees d em o n strates im p lies rejects arg u es d escrib es in sists rep lies asserts d isag rees lists rep o rts b eliev es d iscu sses m ain tain s resp o n d s claim s d isp u tes n o tes su g g ests co n ced es em p h asizes o b jects w rites T h e h ig h lig h ted sen ten ce ex p lain s w h y th e referen ce is im p o rtan t— th e w riter o f th is p ap er w an ted h is read ers to k n o w th at su stain ab ility isn ‘t ju st fo r p articu lar in d u stries, an d h e h as su p p o rt fo r th is claim . H e fo llo w s u p th at in tro d u cto ry sen ten ce w ith su p p o rtin g in fo rm atio n fro m th e so u rce. T h e p arap h rased in fo rm atio n is in tro d u ced w ith a statem en t th at su g g ests th at an o th er au th o r w ro te th e id ea o rig in ally . H e th en p ro v id es th e au th o rs’ n am es an d th e y ear o f th e article’s p u b licatio n . A v o id in g D ro p p ed Q u o ta tio n s. T o av o id p lag iarism , y o u ‘ll w an t to m ak e su re th at y o u are u sin g th e fo u r p arts o f a citatio n d escrib ed in th e “F o u r p arts” tab . B u t y o u ‘ll n eed a fifth p art, p laced in b o ld b elo w , to av o id d ro p p ed q u o tatio n s an d to k eep y o u r w ritin g flu id . W h en w riters d o n ‘t p ro v id e an in tro d u cto ry o r co n clu d in g statem en t to in d icate w h y a so u rce is b ro u g h t in to th e co n v ersatio n , w e call th is a d ro p p ed q u o tatio n b ecau se th e q u o tatio n is seem in g ly d ro p p ed in to th e p arag rap h fro m n o w h ere. W h en citin g th e w o rk o f o th ers, y o u n eed to g iv e y o u r read er en o u g h co n tex t so th at h e o r sh e u n d erstan d s w h eth er y o u are q u o tin g o r p arap h rasin g w o rd s o r id eas. R ead ers also n eed to u n d erstan d w h y y o u are citin g an o th er au th o r: A re y o u g iv in g v o ice to a co u n terarg u m en t? O r are y o u p ro v id in g ev id en ce fo r a m ajo r p o in t? B e su re th at ev ery tim e y o u in clu d e a q u o tatio n in y o u r p ap er, y o u h av e all o f th e fo llo w in g p arts: 1 . A n in tro d u cto ry p h ra se th at in clu d es an in tro d u cto ry w o rd , th e n am e o f th e au th o r, th e p u b licatio n d ate, an d p erh ap s th e title o f th e reso u rce. O n su b seq u en t q u o tatio n s fro m th e sam e so u rce, h o w ev er, y o u can p lace th e au th o r’s n am e, th e p u b licatio n d ate, an d th e p ag e n u m b er at th e en d o f th e citatio n . R em em b er th at y o u w ill n eed to p lace a co m m a b etw een th e in tro d u cto ry p h rase an d th e q u o tatio n . 2 . T h e q u o ta tio n , su rro u n d ed b y q u o ta tio n m a rk s. If th e q u o tatio n en d s in an ex clam atio n p o in t o r a q u estio n m ark , p u t th at p u n ctu atio n rig h t b efo re th e clo sin g q u o tatio n m ark . 3 . A n in tex t referen ce w ith th e au th o r’s n am e an d p u b licatio n d ate (if eith er o f th ese w ere n o t in clu d ed in y o u r in tro d u cto ry p h rase) an d th e p ag e n u m b er. P lace a p erio d after th e clo sin g p aren th esis o f th e in tex t referen ce. 4 . A t lea st o n e sen ten ce th a t su m s u p w h y th a t q u o ta tio n w a s so im p o rta n t to y o u r th esis sta tem en t o r th e m a jo r p o in t y o u a re su p p o rtin g in th a t p la ce in th e p a p er. T h is u su ally m ean s th at y o u sh o u ld n o t en d a p arag rap h w ith a q u o tatio n b ecau se y o u w o u ld n o t b e p ro v id in g en o u g h co n tex t fo r w h y th e q u o tatio n is im p o rtan t. 5 . A referen ce p a g e cita tio n . E v ery tim e y o u cite a so u rce, y o u sh o u ld in clu d e th e au th o r’s n am e, th e d ate o f p u b licatio n , an d th e p ag e n u m b er (if y o u are q u o tin g ). T h at w o n ‘t ch an g e. H o w ev er, th e lo catio n in w h ich y o u p ro v id e th is in fo rm atio n w ill ch an g e d ep en d in g o n w h eth er o r n o t y o u w rite th e au th o r’s n am e as p art o f th e sen ten ce. A later p arap h rase o r q u o tatio n b y th e sam e au th o r in th e sam e p arag rap h w o u ld n o t n ecessa rily n eed to reiterate th e au th o r’s n am e to in tro d u ce th e q u o ted o r p arap h rased co n ten t, b u t it w o u ld n eed to in clu d e th e n am e o f th e au th o r, th e p u b licatio n d ate, an d — if y o u are q u o tin g — th e p ag e n u m b er in th e p aren th etical citatio n . T h o u g h so m e b eliev e th at su stain ab ility is th e d o m ain o f in d u stries su ch as farm in g , ed u catio n , o r th e au to m o tiv e in d u stry , th e au th o rs’ rev iew o f research ad d resses th e cu rren t th o u g h ts ab o u t su stain ab ility in m an y in d u stries an d su g g ests th at in ev ery in d u stry , co m p an ies n eed to fo cu s o n th eir im ag e in o rd er to stay co m p etitiv e (B eh eiry , C h o n g , & H ass, 2 0 0 6 ). Y o u w ill n o tice in th e ex cerp t b elo w th at th e au th o r u ses an in tro d u cto ry statem en t to ex p lain w h y th e q u o tatio n is im p o rtan t to h is m ajo r p o in t. A fter read in g th e first sen ten ce, w e k n o w th e q u o tatio n is g o in g to tell u s m o re ab o u t w h y th e au th o rs are in terested in research in g m u ltin atio n al co rp o ratio n s rath er th an g o v ern m en ts o r sm aller b u sin esses. T h e co n clu sio n sen ten ce fu rth er ex p lain s w h y th e q u o tatio n an d p arap h rased co n ten t are im p o rtan t to th e research p ap er as a w h o le. S e n te n c e g r a m m a r R em em b er th at w h en y o u u se a q u o tatio n , y o u m u st still w rite co m p lete sen ten ces. E v ery sen ten ce o f y o u r w ritin g m u st b e g ram m atically co rrect. W h en y o u u se q u o tatio n s, y o u n eed to in co rp o rate th em in to y o u r o w n sen ten ces. E v en if y o u u se o n ly p art o f a sen ten ce fro m y o u r o rig in al so u rce, it is y o u r resp o n sib ility to u se th e co rrect g ram m ar so th at it fits co m fo rtab ly in to y o u r o w n w ritin g . B reak q u o tatio n s in to sm aller p ieces if y o u n eed to an d co m b in e p arap h rases w ith q u o tatio n s. B u t en su re th at y o u d o n ‘t ch an g e th e m ean in g o f th e q u o tatio n b y elim in atin g im p o rtan t w o rd s w h en y o u trim q u o tatio n s d o w n . T h e sen ten ce b elo w co n tain s a q u o tatio n in th e m id d le o f a sen ten ce. P ay sp ecial atten tio n to th e w ay in w h ich th is q u o tatio n is cited . B eh eiry , C h o n g , an d H ass (2 0 0 6 ) ex p lain th eir in terest in fin d in g a b u sin ess case fo r su stain ab ility in sp ecifically m u ltin atio n al co rp o ratio n s: “U n lik e m an y g o v ern m en ts, m u ltin atio n als h av e in terests an d in flu en ce th at g o b ey o n d n atio n al b o rd ers. M an y m u ltin atio n al co rp o ratio n s alread y h av e en v iro n m en tal m an ag em en t sy stem s (E M S s), p o llu tio n red u ctio n , an d en erg y sav in g p ractices in p lace” (p . 3 8 5 ). T h o u g h th e au th o rs ad m it th at co rp o ratio n s h av e n o t so lv ed su stain ab ility issu es y et, th ey su g g est th at co rp o ratio n s w ill ev en tu ally fin d th e n eed to co m p ete o n a b alan ced su stain ab ility m o re co m p ellin g th an th e n eed fo r th e sh o rtterm sav in g s rep resen ted b y th e statu s q u o — w astefu l u se o f reso u rces (B eh eiry , C h o n g , & H ass, 2 0 0 6 ). B eh eiry , C h o n g , an d H ass (2 0 0 6 ) ex p lain th at th eir ex p erim en t su g g ested th at co m p an ies th at w ere m o re co m m itted to all th ree p illars o f su stain ab le b u sin ess p ractices— so cial d ev elo p m en t, en v iro n m en tal su stain ab ility , a n d eco n o m ic d ev elo p m en t— w ere m o re lik ely to see p ro jects co m in g in u n d er b u d g et an d o n sch ed u le. T h is is im p o rtan t, th e R em em b er th at, reg ard less o f th e p u n ctu atio n th at th e in tex t referen ce p reced es, th e clo sin g p aren th esis o f th e citatio n falls b efo re th e clo sin g p u n ctu atio n . N ev er p la ce th e clo sin g p u n ctu a tio n o f th e sen ten ce in sid e th e p a ren th etica l referen ce. M a k in g ch a n g es to q u o ta tio n s. T h is m ay b e su rp risin g , b u t in o rd er to k eep y o u r w ritin g g ram m atically co rrect an d co n cise, y o u can actu ally m ak e ch an g es to q u o ted m aterial. F o r ex am p le, y o u can ch an g e th e first w o rd o f a q u o tatio n to an u p p ercase o r lo w ercase letter so th at th e q u o tatio n b etter fits in to th e g ram m ar o f y o u r o w n sen ten ce. In th e ex am p le b elo w , R ey es actu ally b eg an h er sen ten ce w ith “D ev elo p in g ,” so th e first letter w as cap italized in th e o rig in al. B u t th at d id n ‘t fit in th e g ram m ar o f th e n ew sen ten ce, so th e letter w as m ad e lo w ercase. Y o u can also ch an g e th e p u n ctu a tio n m ark at th e en d o f a q u o tatio n so th at it fits th e g ram m ar o f y o u r o w n sen ten ce: fo r ex am p le, a co m m a can b eco m e a p erio d . D o n ‘t ch an g e th e p u n ctu atio n m ark s, h o w ev er, in an y w ay th at w o u ld ch an g e th e q u o tatio n ‘s m ean in g . Y o u w o u ld n ‘t w an t to in sert a q u estio n m ark w h ere an au th o r w as m ak in g a factu al statem en t, fo r in stan ce. If y o u rem o v e an y th in g fro m th e m id d le o f a q u o tatio n , u se th ree sp aced ellip sis p o in ts ( . . . ) to in d icate th e o m issio n : N ev er rem o v e a citatio n fro m th e m id d le o f a q u o tatio n . F o r ex am p le, if y o u w an t to q u o te th is sen ten ce fro m S h u F en K ao an d B . L u sk ‘s article “A ttitu d es T o w ard s D eath an d D y in g ,” y o u m ay n o t rem o v e th e citatio n o f B en o liel, even if yo u a re rem o vin g m a teria l a ro u n d th e cita tio n : au th o rs claim , b ecau se “th e h isto rical ten d en cy to fo cu s o n en v iro n m en tal su stain ab ility o v eralig n ed S D [su stain ab le d ev elo p m en t] w ith th e g reen m o v em en t an d alien ated th e b u sin ess ex ecu tiv es” (B eh eiry , C h o n g , & H ass, 2 0 0 6 , p . 3 8 4 ). T h e au th o rs arg u e th at th e reaso n m an y co m p an ies are slo w to em b race su stain ab le p ractices is th at th ere is n o relev an t b u sin ess case to p ersu ad e th o se in ch arg e th at su stain ab ility w ill in crease v alu e to sh areh o ld ers. T h e resu lts o f th is ex p erim en t m ay b e u sed to su p p o rt th e id ea th at su stain ab ility can red u ce co sts, w h ich m ig h t en co u rag e b u sin ess o w n ers to ad o p t su stain ab le m an ag em en t p ractices. O n e stu d y fo u n d th at “d ev elo p in g so cial n etw o rk s o n cam p u s co u n teracted iso latio n an d in v isib ility ” (R ey es, 2 0 1 1 , p . 2 5 7 ). “F o r sm all firm s . . . fix ed co sts are o f sp ecial co n cern ” (G erh ard & M ilk o v ich , 1 9 9 0 , p . 6 6 7 ). Y o u m ig h t alter th e q u o tatio n in th is w ay : B u t y o u m ay n o t alter th e q u o tatio n b y rem o v in g th e citatio n an d an y th in g aro u n d it: Y o u d o n o t n eed to ad d so u rces cited w ith in q u o tatio n s fro m so u rces y o u are u sin g to y o u r o w n referen ce list. T o q u o te o r p a r a p h r a se ? In g en eral, p arap h rasin g so u rces w ill k eep y o u r o w n w ritin g fro m b eco m in g ch o p p y an d seem in g ly th ro w n to g eth er. H o w ev er, y o u m ig h t q u o te co n ten t d irectly if y o u feel th at th e au th o r’s o rig in al p h rasin g o ffers a to n e o r a co n cisio n th at y o u w o u ld n o t w an t to d isru p t. T h e p arag rap h b elo w u ses a q u o tatio n th at im p arts a to n e th at u n iq u ely an d p o w erfu lly d escrib es th e ty p e o f p ro jects th at citizen s m ay o b ject to , so th e w riter o f th is p ap er ch o se to k eep th e q u o tatio n in tact b ecau se it o ffers m o re co n cisio n th an h e co u ld rep licate. “T h is b eh av io r m ig h t b e ex p lain ed b y B en o liel (1 9 8 7 – 1 9 8 8 ), in h er rev iew o f th e research literatu re co n cern in g h ealth care p ro v id ers an d d y in g p atien ts, th at th ere is so m e ev id en ce th at av o id an ce o f d y in g p atien ts is a p referred co p in g strateg y fo r n u rses.” “T h is b eh av io r m ig h t b e ex p lain ed b y B en o liel (1 9 8 7 – 1 9 8 8 ) . . . th at th ere is so m e ev id en ce th at av o id an ce o f d y in g p atien ts is a p referred co p in g strateg y fo r n u rses.” “T h is b eh av io r m ig h t b e ex p lain ed b y . . . so m e ev id en ce th at av o id an ce o f d y in g p atien ts is a p referred co p in g strateg y fo r n u rses.” B eh eiry , C h o n g , an d H ass (2 0 0 6 ) su g g est th at “N ew ro ad s in a p ictu resq u e co u n try sid e, refin eries in co astal w etlan d s, an d d am s o n scarce riv er reso u rces are ty p ical p ro jects th at attract fierce d eb ate” (p . 3 8 5 ), b u t th en ack n o w led g e th at m ark et fo rces g en erally are an im p o rtan t d eterm in in g facto r fo r w h ich p ro jects are b u ilt w h ere. A p o rtrait o f th e S h aw n ee ch ief T ecu m seh , after B en so n L o ssin g ‘s en g rav in g . (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) P resid en t A n d rew Jack so n w as a fo rcefu l ad v o cate o f In d ian rem o v al. (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) T h e m e : T h in k in g A b o u t H is t o r y | L e a r n in g B lo c k 7 -4 : T h e T r a il o f T e a r s T h e T r a il o f T e a r s A s w e saw in L earn in g B lo ck 7 1 , th e early 1 9 th cen tu ry saw w id esp read co n flict b etw een N ativ e trib es an d w h ite settlers, an d th e S o u th eastern U n ited S tates w as o n e o f th e m ajo r aren as fo r th is co n flict. A s th e n atio n ‘s p o p u latio n in creased an d settlers b eg an to p u sh w estw ard , th e h u g e stretch es o f N ativ e trib al lan d in G eo rg ia, F lo rid a, A lab am a, an d M ississip p i seem ed a rip e targ et— esp ecially b ecau se th is lan d w as id eal fo r cu ltiv atin g co tto n , an ex trem ely v alu ab le cash cro p . S tartin g w ith T h o m as Jefferso n , A m erican P resid en ts h ad en v isio n ed th at N ativ es liv in g east o f th e M ississip p i R iv er w o u ld h av e to g iv e u p th eir lan d . A s Jefferso n saw it, th o se w h o w an ted to rem ain in th e east co u ld b eco m e citizen s an d receiv e a 6 4 0 acre p lo t o f farm lan d , w h ile th o se w h o w an ted to m ain tain th eir trib al so v ereig n ty co u ld trad e th eir N ativ e lan d s fo r fed eral lan d w est o f th e M ississip p i. (Jefferso n , 1 8 0 3 ) In eith er ev en t, th e N ativ es w o u ld n o t rem ain o n th eir o w n lan d . T h e W ar o f 1 8 1 2 w as a m ajo r tu rn in g p o in t in relatio n s b etw een N ativ es an d A m erican settlers. B efo re th e w ar, th e B ritish h ad u sed th eir m ilitary p resen ce in C an ad a to h elp In d ian trib es in th eir b attles ag ain st en cro ach in g A m erican settlers; th e B ritish h o p ed to estab lish a N ativ e state in th e A m erican N o rth w est th at w o u ld serv e as a b u ffer b etw een C an ad a an d th e U n ited S tates. D u rin g th e W ar o f 1 8 1 2 , th e B ritish fo rm ed an allian ce w ith a co n fed eratio n o f N ativ e n atio n s, led b y th e S h aw n ee ch ief, T ecu m seh ; B ritish so ld iers fo u g h t sid eb y sid e w ith N ativ es in m an y en g ag em en ts b efo re T ecu m seh w as k illed in 1 8 1 3 . T h e T reaty o f G h en t, w h ich en d ed th e w ar, also en d ed an y allian ces b etw een N ativ es an d th e B ritish . In retu rn fo r th e A m erican s’ p led g e to resp ect C an ad a’s b o rd er th e B ritish ab an d o n ed th e id ea o f estab lish in g a N ativ e b u ffer state, an d p ro m ised n o t to arm A m erican N ativ es. (T u rn er, 2 0 0 0 ) W ith o u t th e B ritish as a p o ten tial ally , N ativ es h ad less lev erag e to resist th e effo rts o f w h ite settlers to claim th eir lan d . In 1 8 2 5 , P resid en t Jam es M o n ro e p ro p o sed th e first p lan fo r In d ian rem o v al. U n d er th is p lan , N ativ es liv in g east o f th e M ississip p i w o u ld v o lu n tarily trad e th eir h o m elan d s fo r sim ilarly sized stretch es o f w estern lan d , in A rk an sas T errito ry an d In d ian T errito ry . C o n g ress ap p ro v ed th e p lan an d M o n ro e an d h is su ccesso r, Jo h n Q u in cy A d am s, so u g h t to co n v in ce th e N ativ es to m o v e b y p eacefu l m ean s. A t th e sam e tim e th e state g o v ern m en t o f G eo rg ia, eag er to seize lan d fro m th e C reek an d C h ero k ee, ex erted p o litical p ressu re o n A d am s to n eg o tiate treaties th at w ere fav o rab le to G eo rg ia’s in terests. (P ru ch a, 1 9 9 7 ). In 1 8 2 8 , A n d rew Jack so n , w h o ‘d g ain ed fam e in larg e p art fo r h is m ilitary ex p lo its ag ain st th e C reek an d S em in o le In d ian s, w o n electio n as th e n atio n ‘s sev en th P resid en t. T h e v eteran In d ian fig h ter to o k a m u ch to u g h er lin e th an h is p red ecesso rs, callin g fo r th e rem o v al o f all N ativ es east o f th e M ississip p i. In 1 8 3 0 , C o n g ress p assed th e In d ian R em o v al A ct, w h ich au th o rized Jack so n to n eg o tiate treaties w ith each o f th e In d ian n atio n s, w ith th e g o al o f relo catin g each o n e. (F o rem an , 1 9 3 2 ) A s w e saw in L earn in g B lo ck 7 1 , d ifferen t N ativ e g ro u p s resp o n d ed to th e In d ian R em o v al A ct in d ifferen t w ay s. T h e resp o n se o f th e C h ero k ee w as o n e o f th e m o re co m p lex — an d , u ltim ately , trag ic— o f th o se resp o n ses. T h is learn in g b lo ck lo o k s at th e h isto ry o f th e C h ero k ee R em o v al as an ex am p le o f h isto rical co m p lex ity , an d u ses it to h elp y o u u se h isto rical ev id en ce to d raw co n clu sio n s ab o u t th e n atu re o f h isto rical ev en ts. L e a r n in g O b je c tiv e s In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u w ill: A ssess th e co m p lex ity o f a h isto rical ev en t U se h isto rical ev id en ce to d raw co n clu sio n s ab o u t a h isto rical ev en t R e fe re n c e s F o rem an , G . (1 9 3 2 ). In d ia n R em o va l: T h e E m ig ra tio n o f th e F ive C ivilized T rib es o f In d ia n s. N o rm an , O K : U n iv ersity o f O k lah o m a P ress. Jefferso n , T . (1 8 0 3 ). L etter to W illiam H en ry H arriso n , G o v ern o r o f th e In d ian a T errito ry . R etriev ed fro m w w w .d ig italh isto ry .u h .ed u /activ e_ learn in g /ex p lo ratio n s/in d ian _ rem o v al/jefferso n _ to _ h arriso n .cfm P ru ch a, F . (1 9 9 7 ). A m erica n In d ia n T rea ties: T h e H isto ry o f a P o litica l A n o m a ly. B erk eley , C A : U n iv ersity o f C alifo rn ia P ress. T u rn er, W . (2 0 0 0 ). T h e W a r o f 1 8 1 2 : T h e W a r T h a t B o th S id es W o n . T o ro n to : D u n d u rn P ress. C h e r o k e e R e m o v a l T h e an cestral lan d s o f th e C h ero k ee N atio n in clu d ed p arts o f A lab am a, G eo rg ia, N o rth C aro lin a, an d T en n essee. B u t th e b u lk o f C h ero k ee lan d w as in G eo rg ia, an d it is th ere th at th e sto ry o f th e C h ero k ee R em o v al is cen tered . In 1 8 0 2 , th e fled g lin g fed eral g o v ern m en t m ad e a d eal w ith th e state o f G eo rg ia. In retu rn fo r ced in g its w estern lan d claim s (w h ich w o u ld b eco m e th e states o f A lab am a an d M ississip p i), G eo rg ia receiv ed a p ro m ise th at th e fed eral g o v ern m en t w o u ld n eg o tiate treaties to rem o v e all N ativ es fro m th e state. H ere w e see a clear ex am p le o f th e h isto rical co n cep t o f ch an g e o v er tim e. In th e 2 1 st cen tu ry th e fo rced relo catio n o f an en tire racial o r eth n ic g ro u p w o u ld b e co n sid ered eth n ic clean sin g , a term co in ed in th e 1 9 9 0 s an d leg ally v iew ed as a “crim e ag ain st h u m an ity .” (U .N . G en eral A ssem b ly , 1 9 9 2 ). B u t th is co n cep t d id n o t ev en ex ist in th e 1 8 0 0 s, an d th e fo rced relo catio n o f A m erican N ativ e trib es o ccu rred freq u en tly d u rin g th e 1 9 th cen tu ry . S o m e C h ero k ee d id ag ree to relo cate v o lu n tarily to A rk an sas in th e late 1 8 th an d early 1 9 th cen tu ries; th ese “O ld S ettlers” ev en tu ally estab lish ed th e W estern C h ero k ee N atio n , b u t th e b u lk o f th e C h ero k ee rem ain ed in G eo rg ia. A s p art o f th eir effo rt to rem ain o n th eir an cestral lan d s, th e C h ero k ee— w h o , alo n g w ith th e o th er “C iv ilized T rib es,” h ad ad o p ted m an y asp ects o f E u ro p ean A m erican cu ltu re— stro v e to assim ilate ev en fu rth er. B y th e early 1 9 th cen tu ry , th e C h ero k ee h ad ad o p ted a w ritten lan g u ag e an d a co n stitu tio n m o d eled o n th at o f th e U n ited S tates, an d th ey h ad b u ilt a cap ital city at N ew E ch o ta in G eo rg ia. M an y C h ero k ee m arried w h ite settlers; Jo h n R o ss, th e P rin cip al C h ief o f th e C h ero k ee N atio n fro m 1 8 2 8 to 1 8 6 6 , h ad larg ely S co ttish an cestry an d w as o n ly o n eeig h th C h ero k ee. T h e C h ero k ee trad ed ex ten siv ely T h e G reat S eal o f th e C h ero k ee N atio n . (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) Jo h n R o ss, p rin cip al ch ief o f th e C h ero k ee N atio n . N o te h is E u ro p ean sty le o f d ress, em b lem atic o f th e C h ero k ee’s assim ilatio n . (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) w ith w h ite settlers, an d m an y d ressed in w estern sty le clo th in g ; so m e o f th e w ealth iest C h ero k ee o w n ed to b acco o r co tto n p lan tatio n s as w ell as b lack slav es. N o n eth eless, p ressu re fo r rem o v al in creased as co tto n b ecam e th e d o m in an t cash cro p in th e state, b ecau se th e C h ero k ee’s lan d w as p articu larly w ellsu ited fo r co tto n p ro d u ctio n . (F ite, 1 9 4 9 ) T h e d isco v ery o f g o ld in 1 8 2 9 , an d th e en su in g G eo rg ia G o ld R u sh , o n ly in ten sified th e p ressu re. (W illiam s, 2 0 1 6 ) In 1 8 2 8 , th e state o f G eo rg ia en acted a series o f statu tes th at effectiv ely strip p ed th e C h ero k ee o f th eir rig h ts u n d er state law . R ath er th an reso rt to v io len ce th e C h ero k ee to o k th e state to co u rt; th e trib e ap p eared to b e v in d icated w h en th e S u p rem e C o u rt ru led , in W o rcester v. G eo rg ia (1 8 3 2 ), th at in d iv id u al states can n o t in terfere w ith N ativ es’ trib al so v ereig n ty . B u t G eo rg ia flatly refu sed to co m p ly w ith th e C o u rt’s ru lin g an d P resid en t Jack so n , firm ly co m m itted to h is p o licy o f In d ian rem o v al, refu sed to en fo rce th e C o u rt’s d ecisio n . W h en G eo rg ia co n d o n ed arm ed raid s o n C h ero k ee territo ry an d w en t ah ead w ith a state lo ttery to d istrib u te C h ero k ee lan d , th e fed eral g o v ern m en t essen tially lo o k ed th e o th er w ay . (F o rem an , 1 9 3 2 ) F aced w ith Jack so n ‘s refu sal to en fo rce th e S u p rem e C o u rt’s d ecisio n , th e C h ero k ee lead ersh ip sp lit. O n e factio n , led b y P rin cip al C h ief Jo h n R o ss, co n tin u ed to resist th e fed eral g o v ern m en t’s p ressu re to n eg o tiate a treaty fo r C h ero k ee rem o v al. A n o th er factio n , led b y trib al eld er M ajo r R id g e an d h is so n , Jo h n , cam e to b eliev e th at rem o v al w as in ev itab le— an d th at, n o m atter h o w m u ch th ey p erso n ally o p p o sed th e id ea, th e C h ero k ee sh o u ld n eg o tiate w ith Jack so n to g et th e b est d eal p o ssib le. T h e d iv isio n in th e C h ero k ee lead ersh ip led to p o litical b rin k sm an sh ip an d , ev en tu ally , v io len ce. T h e p ro R o ss factio n o rg an ized itself in to th e “N atio n al P arty ” w h ile th e p ro R id g e factio n called itself th e “T reaty P arty .” In 1 8 3 2 , R o ss can celed trib al electio n s an d th e C h ero k ee N atio n al C o u n cil th reaten ed to im p each M ajo r an d Jo h n R id g e; later, a p ro m in en t T reaty P arty m em b er w as m u rd ered . B u t Jo h n R id g e an d o th er m em b ers o f th e T reaty P arty co n tin u ed to m eet secretly w ith fed eral o fficials. (B erry , 2 0 1 2 ) R e fe re n c e s B erry , C . (2 0 1 2 ) F actio n alism , F ig h tin g , an d th e T rag ed y o f th e T rail. R etriev ed fro m w w w .allth in g sch ero k ee.co m /factio n alism fig h tin g trag ed y trail/ F ite, G . (1 9 4 9 ). “D ev elo p m en t o f th e C o tto n In d u stry b y th e F iv e C iv ilized T rib es in In d ian T errito ry ” T h e Jo u rn a l o f S o u th ern H isto ry, V o l. 1 5 , N o . 3 . 3 4 2 3 5 3 . F o rem an , G . (1 9 3 2 ). In d ia n R em o va l: T h e E m ig ra tio n o f th e F ive C ivilized T rib es o f In d ia n s. N o rm an , O K : U n iv ersity o f O k lah o m a P ress. U n ited N atio n s G en eral A ssem b ly (1 9 9 2 ) R eso lu tio n 4 7 /1 2 1 , D ecem b er 1 8 , 1 9 9 2 . W illiam s, D . (Jan u ary 1 2 , 2 0 1 6 ) G o ld R u sh ; N ew G eo rg ia E n cy clo p ed ia. R etriev ed fro m w w w .g eo rg iaen cy clo p ed ia.o rg /articles/h isto ry arch aeo lo g y /g o ld ru sh Jo h n R id g e, a lead er o f th e T reaty P arty , w as assassin ated in 1 8 3 9 . (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) T h e T r a g ic Jo u r n e y W e s t In 1 8 3 5 , ab o u t 4 0 0 su p p o rters o f th e T reaty P arty — a sm all fractio n o f th e 1 6 ,0 0 0 C h ero k ee th en liv in g east o f th e M ississip p i— m et w ith a fed eral n eg o tiato r in th e C h ero k ee cap ital o f N ew E ch o ta. O n D ecem b er 2 9 , th e g ro u p ‘s n eg o tiatin g co m m ittee ap p ro v ed th e T reaty o f N ew E ch o ta, u n d er w h ich th e C h ero k ee w o u ld relo cate to In d ian T errito ry in retu rn fo r $ 5 m illio n (alo n g w ith an o th er $ 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 in ed u catio n al fu n d s), an d lan d eq u al to th e am o u n t th ey w ere g iv in g u p . T h e o rig in al treaty also co n tain ed a clau se th at w o u ld h av e allo w ed in d iv id u al C h ero k ee to rem ain east o f th e M ississip p i an d b eco m e A m erican citizen s if th ey g av e u p claim s to th eir lan d , b u t P resid en t Jack so n rejected th at p ro v isio n . (P erd u e an d G reen , 2 0 0 4 ) T h e C h ero kee R em o va l w a s d ra m a tized in a 2 0 0 9 d o cu m en ta ry, “W e W ill R em a in : T h e T ra il o f T ea rs.” T o see a ll o r p a rt o f th is d o cu m en ta ry, click h ere. Y o u ca n w a tch a s m u ch o f th e d o cu m en ta ry a s yo u ‘d like, b u t th e p a rt releva n t to th e T ra il o f T ea rs co n sists o f S eg m en ts 1 8 2 8 . Y o u w ill h a ve to lo g in to S h a p iro L ib ra ry w ith yo u r S N H U cred en tia ls to a ccess th is strea m in g vid eo . Jo h n R o ss p ro m p tly d en o u n ced th e treaty an d th e C h ero k ee N atio n al C o u n cil d eclared it a frau d , b u t th e U .S . S en ate ratified it in 1 8 3 6 b y a sin g le v o te. U n d er term s o f th e treaty , C h ero k ee h ad tw o y ears to m o v e w est v o lu n tarily , b efo re th e U .S . A rm y w o u ld b eg in a “fo rced rem o v al.” R elativ ely few C h ero k ee, v irtu ally all o f th em su p p o rters o f th e T reaty P arty , relo cated w illin g ly . In 1 8 3 8 , Jack so n ‘s su ccesso r, P resid en t M artin V an B u ren , o rd ered G en eral W in field S co tt to b eg in fo rcib ly rem o v in g th e C h ero k ee. B u t th e in itial rem o v al o p eratio n , in v o lv in g ab o u t 3 ,0 0 0 N ativ es, resu lted in h u n d red s o f d eath s an d d esertio n s; S co tt su sp en d ed th e o p eratio n an d p laced th e rem ain in g C h ero k ee in 1 1 in tern m en t cam p s. E v en tu ally , P rin cip al C h ief Jo h n R o ss— b o w in g to th e in ev itab le, b u t also h o p in g to safeg u ard h is p o sitio n as lead er o n ce th e C h ero k ee arriv ed in In d ian C o u n try — sig n ed a co n tract w ith th e g o v ern m en t to o v ersee th e relo catio n p lan . (P ru ch a, 1 9 8 4 ) R o ss arran g ed fo r 1 2 w ag o n train s, each w ith ro u g h ly 1 ,0 0 0 C h ero k ee, to m ak e th e th o u san d m ile trip w est. (R o ss an d o th er N atio n al P arty lead ers trav eled in g reater co m fo rt ab o ard th e steam b o at V icto ria .) S tartin g o u t in O cto b er an d N o v em b er, th e w ag o n train s en d u red h arsh w in ter co n d itio n s d u rin g th e th ree to fo u rm o n th jo u rn ey , an d h u n d red s m o re p erish ed . T h is is th e p h ase o f th e C h ero k ee R em o v al co m m o n ly k n o w n as th e T rail o f T ears. E stim ates fo r th e to tal n u m b er o f d eath s d u rin g th e C h ero k ee R em o v al v ary w id ely , fro m a lo w o f 2 ,0 0 0 to a h ig h o f 6 ,0 0 0 . T h e m o st co m m o n ly cited fig u re is 4 ,0 0 0 ; th is n u m b er tak es in to acco u n t th o se w h o d ied d u rin g th e in itial A rm y rem o v al o p eratio n ; in th e in tern m en t cam p s; an d o n th e w ag o n train s. (P ru ch a, 1 9 8 4 ; A n d erso n , 1 9 9 1 ) T h e m o v e w est d id n o th in g to h eal th e d iv isio n s w ith in th e C h ero k ee lead ersh ip . F o llo w ers o f th e T reaty P arty , m an y o f w h o m h ad relo cated v o lu n tarily , alig n ed th em selv es w ith th e O ld S ettlers w h o h ad arriv ed b efo re 1 8 3 0 . R o ss an d h is N atio n al P arty fo llo w ers arriv ed in early 1 8 3 9 , an d h e p ro m p tly asserted h is p o sitio n as P rin cip al C h ief; th e fo llo w in g Ju n e, th ree o f th e lead ers o f th e T reaty P arty — M ajo r R id g e, Jo h n R id g e, an d E lias B o u d in o t— w ere assassin ated b y su p p o rters o f th e N atio n al P arty . T h e k illin g s set o ff a w av e o f in tertrib al v io len ce th at lasted fo r a d ecad e, an d fierce riv alries w ith in th e trib al lead ersh ip lasted th ro u g h o u t th e A m erican C iv il W ar. (W ilk in s, 1 9 7 0 ) W h en Jo h n R o ss d ied in 1 8 6 6 , th e C h ero k ee N atio n w as still b itterly d iv id ed . R e fe re n c e s A n d erso n , W ., ed . (1 9 9 1 ) C h ero kee R em o va l: B efo re a n d A fter. A th en s, G A : U n iv ersity o f G eo rg ia P ress. P erd u e, T . an d G reen , M . (2 0 0 5 ) T h e C h ero kee R em o va l: A B rief H isto ry w ith D o cu m en ts. B o sto n : S t. M artin ‘s P ress. P ru ch a, F . (1 9 8 4 ). T h e G rea t F a th er: T h e U n ited S ta tes G o vern m en t a n d th e A m erica n In d ia n s. L in co ln , N eb rask a: U n iv ersity o f N eb rask a P ress. W ilk in s, T . (1 9 7 0 ) C h ero kee T ra g ed y. N ew Y o rk : M acm illan C o m p an y . E x e r c is e : F u r t h e r R e a d in g s T h e fo llo w in g p assag e is ex cerp ted fro m “T o O v eraw e th e In d ian s an d G iv e C o n fid en ce to th e W h ites: P rep aratio n s fo r th e R em o v al o f th e C h ero k ee N atio n fro m G eo rg ia”. R ead th e p assag e an d th en an sw er th e q u estio n fo llo w in g it, k eep in g in m in d th e co n cep t o f h isto rical co m p lex ity . C lick o n th e title o f th e article to read , d o w n lo ad , an d p rin t a co p y o f th e tex t. T h ese read in g s are p ro v id ed b y th e S h ap iro L ib rary . T h is rea d in g is req u ired . Y o u w ill h a ve to lo g in to S h a p iro L ib ra ry w ith yo u r S N H U cred en tia ls to a ccess th is a rticle. ” T o O v e r a w e th e In d ia n s a n d G iv e C o n fid e n c e to th e W h ite s:” P r e p a r a tio n s fo r th e R e m o v a l o f th e C h e r o k e e N a tio n fr o m G e o r g ia ” F am iliar acco u n ts o f C h ero k ee N atio n rem o v al n arrate a sto ry o f th e sp rin g o f 1 8 3 8 w h en th e C h ero k ees w ere su rp rised in th eir field s o r at th eir d in n er tab les, ro u n d ed u p lik e an im als, an d fo rced in to sto ck ad es. C o n fin ed an d g u ard ed , th ey su ffered fo r m o n th s w ith o u t ad eq u ate su p p lies, fo o d , o r san itatio n ; th ey d ied b y th e h u n d red s fro m ex p o su re o r d isease. T h ese n arrativ es, w h ich u n d erstan d ab ly fo cu s o n th e terro r o f rem o v al, o b scu re im p o rtan t d ev elo p m en ts th at o ccu rred b etw een treaty ratificatio n an d rem o v al en fo rcem en t. G eo rg ian s in terp reted C h ero k ee resistan ce as th e p relu d e to a v io len t u p risin g . T h eir irratio n al fears co m b in ed w ith su sp icio n o f th e fed eral g o v ern m en t to m ak e rem o v al p rep aratio n s in G eo rg ia a h ap h azard an d b ru tal affair…. M ilitary p rep aratio n s fo r In d ian rem o v al in G eo rg ia b eg an in th e sp rin g o f 1 8 3 6 an d en d ed in th e sp rin g o f 1 8 3 8 . In th o se tw o y ears fed eral an d state o fficials set u p an d u n stead ily ex p an d ed m ilitary o p eratio n s. T h ey d id so in a state d eep ly h o stile to w ard In d ian s an d resen tfu l o f fed eral au th o rity . G eo rg ian s receiv ed little co m fo rt fro m th e C h ero k ee ex p u lsio n treaty o r fro m th e g o v ern m en t’s su b stan tial rem o v al p ro ced u res. C o n v in ced o f C h ero k ee treach ery an d th eir o w n v u ln erab ility , citizen s p ressed th e g o v ern o r to b u ild fo rts, h an d o u t w eap o n s, activ ate tro o p s, an d d isarm o r arrest C h ero k ees. T h ey co n sid ered an d rep eated ly d escrib ed th e C h ero k ees as h o stile, reg ard less o f co n trary ev id en ce. C o n cern ed ab o u t th e v o latility o f G eo rg ian s an d u n ab le to fath o m th e C h ero k ees’ resp o n se to th e treaty , g o v ern m en tal au th o rities p rep ared fo r w ar in sid e th e C h ero k ee N atio n …. C o n d itio n s in th e state rem ain ed v o latile as fo rm er g o v ern o r G eo rg e G ilm er retu rn ed to o ffice in 1 8 3 7 . W o rried th at in tem p erate w h ites w ere m o re lik ely th an reso lu te C h ero k ees to sp ark v io len ce, h e ap p o in ted n ew ag en ts in th e C h ero k ee co u n ties. T h eir ch arg e w as to m o n ito r C h ero k ee attitu d es an d b eh av io r, an d , ju st as im p o rtan tly , to rep o rt an y ab u se o f C h ero k ees b y w h ite G eo rg ian s. In early D ecem b er 1 8 3 7 G ilm er d em an d ed th at Jo sep h H en ry in W alk er C o u n ty , L acy W itch er in P au ld in g C o u n ty , B en jam in C h astain in G ilm er C o u n ty , an d G eo rg e K ello g g in F o rsy th C o u n ty “rep o rt im m ed iately w h eth er In d ian s in y o u r ag en cy h av e b een d istu rb ed in th eir o ccu p an cy an d T h e fo llo w in g read in g s o ffer ad d itio n al in sig h ts ab o u t th e C h ero k ee R em o v al an d th e T rail o f T ears: T h e P rice o f C h ero k ee R em o v a l: A b rief article th at lo o k s at th e C h ero k ee R em o v al fro m an eco n o m ic p ersp ectiv e, m easu rin g th e to tal co st o f th e rem o v al. Y o u can read it at th is lin k . T h is rea d in g is req u ired . ” R em o v a l, R eu n io n , a n d D ia sp o ra ” : A n an aly sis o f th e co m p lex p o litical d y n am ics th at ch aracterized th e relatio n sh ip b etw een d ifferen t g ro u p s o f C h ero k ee w h o m ig rated W est b efo re 1 8 3 8 , an d th o se w h o en d u red th e T rail o f T ears. T h is essay is C h ap ter T h ree o f T h e C h ero kee D ia sp o ra , b y G reg o ry D . S m ith ers (N ew H av en , C T : Y ale U n iv ersity P ress, 2 0 1 5 ). Y o u can read it at th is lin k . T h is rea d in g is o p tio n a l. w h at step s h av e b een tak en to p ro tect th em .” P eacefu l an d tim ely rem o v al, h e em p h asized , d ep en d ed o n th eir p ro tectio n o f In d ian rig h ts u n til M ay 2 3 , 1 8 3 8 . If G eo rg ian s failed in th eir resp o n sib ilities, th e g o v ern o r co n sid ered a b lo o d y co n flict in ev itab le. M ean w h ile, th e fed eral g o v ern m en t m o v ed sw iftly to im p lem en t th e term s o f th e N ew E ch o ta treaty . W ith in d ay s o f treaty ratificatio n , th e g o v ern m en t called w ar h ero Jo h n E llis W o o l fro m T ro y , N ew Y o rk , to tak e co m m an d o f th e n ew A rm y o f th e C h ero k ee N atio n . B y Ju n e, W o o l w as o n h is w ay to th e C h ero k ee A g en cy in A th en s, T en n essee, to estab lish a m ilitary b ase. F o rt C ass b ecam e h ead q u arters fo r th e rem o v al o f th e C h ero k ee N atio n . T h e o rg an izatio n o f fed eral rem o v al p ro v ed erratic, w h ich co m p licated p ro ced u res an d p ro d u ced an arm y o f u n certain ab ilities. G en eral W o o l w as o n e o f th ree career m ilitary o fficers w h o led th e A rm y o f th e C h ero k ee N atio n in a tw o y ear p erio d . O n e y ear after arriv in g in T en n essee, W o o l d ep arted fo r h is co u rt m artial o n ch arg es o f m istreatin g A lab am a citizen s an d p ro p erty .1 3 T h e arm y th en su m m o n ed C o lo n el W illiam L in d say o f L im esto n e, A lab am a, to rep lace h im . L in d say co m m an d ed d u rin g th e seco n d y ear, b u t o n e m o n th b efo re th e treaty d ead lin e h e ced ed co m m an d to G en eral W in field S co tt. A ll th ree co m m an d ers faced su sp icio u s state au th o rities, an asso rtm en t o f illp rep ared tro o p s, h o stile G eo rg ian s, an d a C h ero k ee N atio n w h o lly resistan t to d isp o ssessio n . U n d er th e circu m stan ces, rem o v al p rep aratio n s co u ld h ard ly h av e p ro ceed ed sm o o th ly . S in ce th ey h ad a sig n ed an d ratified treaty , au th o rities assu m ed th e C h ero k ees w o u ld em ig rate v o lu n tarily to In d ian T errito ry . G o v ern m en t ag en ts w h o m et w ith C h ero k ees co n clu d ed th at em ig ratio n w as em in en t an d co n v ey ed th eir assu ran ces to o th ers. W o o l w ro te th at th e d aily rep o rts h e receiv ed in d u ced h im to b eliev e “th at a larg e p o rtio n o f th e n atio n w as p rep ared to su b m it to th e treaty an d to rem o v e w est at th e p ro p er tim e.” A s h e m et w ith th e h ead m en o f C h ero k ee to w n s, h o w ev er, W o o l so o n learn ed th e ex ten t o f th eir o p p o sitio n to th e treaty . A fter o n ly th ree w eek s as co m m an d er, h e b eg an w arn in g th e fed eral g o v ern m en t th at th e m ajo rity o f C h ero k ees co n sid ered th e treaty frau d u len t.1 4 H e reco g n ized th at th eir o p p o sitio n sig n aled w id esp read rejectio n o f v o lu n tary d ep artu re, an d th at so m e d eg ree o f m ilitary actio n w o u ld b e n ecessary . Iñ u p iat w ith a N ativ e sk in b o at, o r u m iak , 1 9 3 5 . (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) P ru d h o e B ay in 1 9 6 8 , th e y ear o il w as d isco v ered th ere. (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) T h e m e : T h in k in g A b o u t H is t o r y | L e a r n in g B lo c k 8 -1 : A la s k a N a t iv e C o r p o r a t io n s L a n d a n d O il In M arch 1 8 6 7 , T sar A lex an d er II o f R u ssia ag reed to sell “R u ssian A m erica” (q u ick ly ren am ed th e “D ep artm en t o f A lask a”) to th e U n ited S tates. U n d er th e T reaty o f C essio n , th e U .S . g o v ern m en t p aid th e T sar $ 7 .2 m illio n fo r a territo ry th at co m p rised 5 8 6 ,4 1 2 sq u are m iles— ro u g h ly tw o cen ts an acre. B u t w h o rea lly o w n ed all th at lan d ? A t th e tim e o f th e A lask a P u rch ase, S ecretary o f S tate W illiam H . S ew ard estim ated th at th e N ativ e p o p u latio n o f A lask a w as slig h tly less th an 6 0 ,0 0 0 . (S ew ard , 1 8 9 1 ) T h ese A lask a N ativ es— in clu d in g th e In u it, T lin g it, Y u p ik , H aid a, A leu t, an d Iñ u p iat, am o n g m an y o th ers— claim ed th at th e lan d h ad alw ay s b een th eir h o m e. T h eir ab o rig in al lan d claim s d ated b ack w ell b efo re A m erican o r ev en R u ssian o w n ersh ip o f th e lan d . T h o se lan d claim s w en t u n reso lv ed fo r m o re th an a cen tu ry ; th e U n ited S tates g o v ern m en t claim ed o w n ersh ip o f th e v ast m ajo rity o f A lask an lan d u n til th e 1 9 6 0 s. In 1 9 7 1 , o n ly ab o u t 1 m illio n o f th e state’s 3 7 5 m illio n acres w ere in p riv ate h an d s. (T u rn er, 1 9 8 2 ). B u t, w ith A lask a so sp arsely p o p u lated (esp ecially in th e v ast In terio r), an d w ith little ag ricu ltu re o r co m m ercial u se fo r m o st A lask an lan d , th ere w ere few co n flicts o v er th e N ativ es’ co n tin u ed u se o f it. M o st o f A lask a w as n o t su itab le fo r settlem en t, in th e sam e w ay th at lan d in th e L o w er 4 8 w as; fo r th at reaso n , relativ ely few n o n N ativ es w ere in terested in th e lan d . C o n g ress in 1 8 8 4 p assed th e A lask a O rg an ic A ct, w h ich p ro tected th e N ativ es’ rig h t to th e “u se an d o ccu p an cy ” o f an cestral lan d , w ith o u t ad d ressin g th e q u estio n o f w h eth er th e N ativ es actu ally o w n ed it. (Jo n es, 1 9 8 1 ) A ll th at ch an g ed in 1 9 6 8 , w h en th e A tlan ticR ich field C o m p an y d isco v ered o il at P ru d h o e B ay o n A lask a’s A rctic C o ast. It q u ick ly b ecam e ap p aren t th at th e m o st effectiv e w ay to g et cru d e o il fro m P ru d h o e B ay to m ark ets in th e L o w er 4 8 w o u ld b e to b u ild a p ip elin e to carry th e o il to th e p o rt o f V ald ez in so u th ern A lask a. (B an et 1 9 9 1 ) B u t to b u ild th e p ip elin e, th e o il co m p an ies w o u ld n eed clear title to th e lan d — lan d th at w as still su b ject to N ativ e lan d claim s. It w as a scen ario th at h ad p lay ed o u t so m an y tim es b efo re in A m erican h isto ry : lan d th at fo r cen tu ries h ad b een u sed b y N ativ es w as, su d d en ly , ex trem ely v alu ab le to n o n N ativ es. S o m an y tim es b efo re, th at scen ario h ad en d ed u p w ith N ativ es b ein g fo rced o r ch eated o u t o f th eir lan d . B u t th e o u tco m e th is tim e w o u ld b e v ery d ifferen t. T h is learn in g b lo ck u ses th e h isto ry o f th e A lask a lan d claim issu e as an o th er w ay to u se h isto rical ev id en ce to d raw co n clu sio n s ab o u t h isto rical ev en ts— as w ell as to rein fo rce y o u r u n d erstan d in g o f h isto rical co n tin g en cy an d co m p lex ity . F o rm er A lask a G o v ern o r W alter H ick el. (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) L e a r n in g O b je c tiv e s In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u w ill: U se h isto rical ev id en ce to d raw co n clu sio n s ab o u t a h isto rical ev en t A ssess th e co n tin g en cy an d co m p lex ity o f h isto rical ev en ts R e fe re n c e s B an et, A . (1 9 9 1 ). “O il an d G as D ev elo p m en t o n A lask a’s N o rth S lo p e: P ast R esu lts an d F u tu re P ro sp ects” A n ch o rag e, A K : B u reau o f L an d M an ag em en t A lask a S tate O ffice. R etriev ed fro m w w w .b lm .g o v /sty le/m ed ialib /b lm /ak /ak test/o fr.P ar.4 9 9 8 7 .F ile.d at/O F R _ 3 4 .p d f. Jo n es, R . (1 9 8 1 ). “A lask a N ativ e C laim s S ettlem en t A ct o f 1 9 7 1 (P u b lic L aw 9 2 2 0 3 ): H isto ry an d A n aly sis T o g eth er W ith S u b seq u en t A m en d m en ts (R ep o rt N o . 8 1 1 2 7 G O V ).” W ash in g to n , D C : C o n g ressio n al R esearch S erv ice. S ew ard , F . W . (1 8 9 1 ) S ew a rd a t W a sh in g to n a s S en a to r a n d S ecreta ry o f S ta te. N ew Y o rk : D erb y an d M iller. T u rn er, W . (1 9 8 2 ). “A reas as V ast as W h o le S tates N o w C h an g e H an d s in A lask a.” T h e N ew Y o rk T im es, O cto b er 8 , 1 9 8 2 . A N C S A a n d N a t iv e C o r p o r a t io n s A lask a w as ad m itted to th e U n io n as th e 4 9 th state o n Jan u ary 3 , 1 9 5 9 . U n d er th e term s o f th e A lask a S tateh o o d A ct, th e fed eral g o v ern m en t w o u ld tran sfer o w n ersh ip o f u p to 1 0 4 .5 m illio n acres o f lan d to th e n ew state, b u t n o n e o f th is w o u ld b e lan d th at w as su b ject to N ativ e claim s. (A lask a S tateh o o d A ct, 1 9 5 8 . ) T h e law g av e th e state 2 5 y ears to select w h ich tracts o f lan d it w an ted . In th e 1 9 6 0 s, th e state b eg an to m ak e its selectio n s— b u t m u ch o f th e lan d it w an ted w as su b ject to N ativ e claim s. S ev eral N ativ e g ro u p s filed law su its to sto p th e lan d selectio n s, an d th e A lask a F ed eratio n o f N ativ es (A F N ) w as fo u n d ed to ad v o cate fo r a fair an d co m p reh en siv e settlem en t to th e lan d claim issu e. In resp o n se, th e fed eral g o v ern m en t sh u t d o w n th e selectio n p ro cess an d to ld th e state to n eg o tiate an ag reem en t w ith th e N ativ es. (Jo n es, 1 9 8 1 ) T h e d isco v ery o f o il at P ru d h o e B ay in 1 9 6 8 ad d ed u rg en cy to th o se n eg o tiatio n s. W ith o u t a reso lu tio n o f th e N ativ e claim s, it w o u ld n o t b e p o ssib le to b u ild th e m assiv e T ran sA lask a P ip elin e th at th e o il in d u stry said w as n eed ed to carry A lask an o il to m ark ets in th e L o w er 4 8 . (N ask e, 1 9 9 4 ) T h e p ressu re to co m e to a q u ick settlem en t in th e in terest o f eco n o m ic d ev elo p m en t w as in fact rem in iscen t o f th e p ressu re to seize N ativ e lan d s fo llo w in g th e G eo rg ia G o ld R u sh in th e 1 8 3 0 s. In each case, th e o p p o rtu n ity to ex tract a h ig h ly v alu ab le n atu ral reso u rce su d d en ly m ad e N ativ e lan d ev en m o re v alu ab le th an b efo re. B u t sev eral facto rs h elp ed to p ro d u ce a v ery d ifferen t o u tco m e fo r th e A lask a N ativ es: T h e N ativ es h ad effectiv e p o litical rep resen tatio n , th ro u g h th e A F N an d o th er o rg an izatio n s; U .S . co u rts w ere m o re sy m p ath etic to th e A lask a N ativ es’ claim s, ru lin g in th eir fav o r in sev eral in stan ces; T h e state g o v ern m en t w as w illin g to seek a n eg o tiated settlem en t w ith th e N ativ es; T h e fed eral g o v ern m en t— in clu d in g S ecretary o f th e In terio r W alter H ick el, a fo rm er g o v ern o r o f A lask a— also fav o red a n eg o tiated settlem en t; an d G reater p u b lic aw aren ess o f th e in ju stices d o n e to N ativ es in th e p ast in creased th e so cial an d p o litical p ressu re to fin d an eq u itab le settlem en t. (Jo n es, 1 9 8 1 ) A fter p ro tracted n eg o tiatio n s, A lask an o fficials an d th e A F N reach ed an ag reem en t in p rin cip le: N ativ es w o u ld receiv e lan d th at th ey h ad h isto rically u sed an d d ro p th eir claim s to an y o th er lan d in th e state in retu rn fo r a cash settlem en t. T h e ex act term s o f th at ag reem en t w o u ld b e fo r th e fed eral g o v ern m en t to d ecid e an d — after in itially o fferin g th e N ativ es far less th an th ey w an ted , in term s o f lan d an d cash — C o n g ress an d P resid en t R ich ard N ix o n ev en tu ally ag reed to a h isto ric d eal. O n D ecem b er 1 8 , 1 9 7 1 , P resid en t N ix o n sig n ed in to law th e A lask a N ativ e C laim s S ettlem en t A ct (A N C S A ), w h ich at th e tim e w as th e larg est lan d claim settlem en t in A m erican h isto ry . In retu rn fo r lettin g th e fed eral g o v ern m en t “ex tin g u ish ” th eir claim s to m o st A lask an lan d , N ativ es receiv ed 4 4 m illio n acres an d a cash p ay m en t o f $ 9 6 2 .5 m illio n . T h e 4 4 m illio n acres w as o n en in th o f th e to tal area o f th e state o f A lask a; th e m o n etary settlem en t rep resen ted a d irect p ay m en t o f $ 4 6 2 .5 m illio n fro m th e fed eral g o v ern m en t an d an o th er $ 5 0 0 m illio n to b e p aid o v er tim e fro m state o il rev en u es. (A N C S A , 1 9 7 1 ) E v en m o re h isto ric th an th e size o f th e A N C S A settlem en t w as th e w ay it w as stru ctu red — a rad ical d ep artu re fro m th e trad itio n al m o d el o f N ativ e reserv atio n s in th e L o w er 4 8 , in w h ich th e fed eral g o v ern m en t h o ld s N ativ e lan d s in tru st. In stead o f estab lish in g reserv atio n s A N C S A set u p a sy stem o f N ativ e co rp o ratio n s to ad m in ister th e lan d an d in v est th e m o n etary settlem en t fo r th e b en efit o f N ativ es. (T h o m as, 1 9 8 6 ) T h e law set u p 1 2 reg io n al co rp o ratio n s, each asso ciated w ith a p articu lar p art o f th e state an d th e N ativ es w h o trad itio n ally liv ed th ere. A ll N ativ es w h o w ere aliv e in 1 9 7 1 co u ld en ro ll in o n e o f th e co rp o ratio n s, an d each receiv ed 1 0 0 sh ares o f sto ck in th e co rp o ratio n in w h ich th ey en ro lled . (A 1 3 th co rp o ratio n w as estab lish ed later, fo r N ativ es w h o w ere n o t liv in g in A lask a in 1 9 7 1 ). T h e law also A m ap o f th e o rig in al 1 2 A lask a N ativ e reg io n al co rp o ratio n s. A 1 3 th reg io n al co rp o ratio n w as estab lish ed later. (click m ap to en larg e) (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) A T lin g it to tem p o le in S itk a, A lask a. (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) estab lish ed m o re th an 2 0 0 lo cal o r “v illag e” co rp o ratio n s, in w h ich N ativ es co u ld also en ro ll an d receiv e sh ares o f sto ck . T h e co rp o ratio n s w ere g iv en free rein to u se th e lan d an d an y m in eral o r o th er n atu ral reso u rces it m ig h t h o ld to d ev elo p fo rp ro fit b u sin esses an d to p ay N ativ e sh areh o ld ers a y early d iv id en d b ased o n th o se p ro fits. T h e co rp o ratio n stru ctu re w as th e b rain ch ild o f th e A F N , w h ich saw th is p ro p o sal as an o p p o rtu n ity to ex ten d “th e tran sfo rm atio n al p o w er o f cap italism …to A lask a N ativ es,” w h ile also p reserv in g th e lan d an d cash settlem en t so th at it co u ld b en efit fu tu re g en eratio n s. (L in x w iler, 2 0 0 7 ) A N C S A w as g en erally w ellreceiv ed in A lask a b y b o th N ativ es an d n o n N ativ es. A fter y ears o f leg al w ran g lin g o v er ex actly w h o w as en titled to N ativ e co rp o ratio n sh ares, m an y o f th o se co rp o ratio n s h av e g ro w n in to su ccessfu l b u sin esses th at g en erate su b stan tial d iv id en d s an d p ro v id e th o u san d s o f jo b s fo r N ativ e sh areh o ld ers. A n d , b y rem o v in g o n e critical b arrier to co n stru ctio n o f th e T ran sA lask a P ip elin e, A N C S A p av ed th e w ay fo r th e em erg en ce o f th e state’s “o il eco n o m y ,” w h ich h as g en erated su b stan tial eco n o m ic b en efits fo r b o th N ativ es an d n o n N ativ es. (A lask a H u m an ities F o ru m , 2 0 1 6 ) O n e u n iq u e asp ect o f A lask a’s “o il eco n o m y ” is th e A la sk a P erm a n en t F u n d , a state fu n d th at co llects 2 5 p ercen t o f all o il lan d ro y alties an d in v ests th o se fu n d s fo r th e b en efit o f all A lask an s. T h e F u n d , w h ich in 2 0 1 5 am o u n ted to m o re th an $ 5 1 b illio n , p ay s a y early d iv id en d to ev ery q u alified A lask an ; in 2 0 1 5 , th at m ean t a d iv id en d ch eck o f $ 2 ,0 7 2 fo r v irtu ally ev ery m an , w o m an , an d ch ild in th e state. (K lin t an d D o o g an , 2 0 1 5 ) B y en ab lin g co n stru ctio n o f th e T ran sA lask a P ip elin e, A N C S A in a v ery real sen se m ad e th e P erm an en t F u n d , an d its y early d iv id en d ch eck s, p o ssib le. S till, th e law rem ain s co n tro v ersial, esp ecially am o n g N ativ es w h o b eliev e it w eak en s ties to N ativ e h eritag e. (T h o m as, 1 9 8 5 ) A lm o st a h alfcen tu ry after its p assag e, th e ju ry is still o u t o n w h eth er A N C S A w as a “g o o d d eal” o r a “raw d eal” fo r N ativ es. B u t it is, in alm o st ev ery resp ect, a v ery d ifferen t so rt o f d eal th an th at receiv ed b y an y o th er g ro u p o f N ativ es in A m erican h isto ry . R e fe re n c e s A lask a H u m an ities F o ru m (2 0 1 6 ). A lask a N ativ e C laim s S ettlem en t A ct. R etriev ed fro m w w w .ak h isto ry co u rse.o rg /m o d ern alask a/alask an ativ eclaim ssettlem en tact, Ju n e 1 0 , 2 0 1 6 . A lask a N ativ e C laim s S ettlem en t A ct (A N C S A ), (1 9 7 1 ). P u b lic L aw 9 2 2 0 3 , 4 3 U .S .C . 1 6 0 1 et seq . A lask a S tateh o o d A ct (1 9 5 8 ). P u b lic L aw 8 5 5 0 8 , 7 2 S tat. 3 3 9 . K lin t, C . an d D o o g an , S . (2 0 1 5 ). “$ 2 ,0 7 2 : 2 0 1 5 A lask a P erm an en t F u n d d iv id en d am o u n t an n o u n ced .” A la ska D isp a tch N ew s, S ep tem b er 2 1 , 2 0 1 5 . R etriev ed fro m w w w .ad n .co m /eco n o m y /article/2 0 1 5 p fd an n o u n cem en tju sth o u rsaw ay an ch o rag e/2 0 1 5 /0 9 /2 1 / Jo n es, R . (1 9 8 1 ). “A lask a N ativ e C laim s S ettlem en t A ct o f 1 9 7 1 (P u b lic L aw 9 2 2 0 3 ): H isto ry an d A n aly sis T o g eth er W ith S u b seq u en t A m en d m en ts (R ep o rt N o . 8 1 1 2 7 G O V ).” W ash in g to n , D C : C o n g ressio n al R esearch S erv ice. L in x w iler, J. (2 0 0 7 ) T h e A lask a N ativ e C laim s S ettlem en t A ct at 3 5 : D eliv erin g o n th e P ro m ise. R etriev ed fro m w w w .lb b law y ers.co m /an csa/A N C S A % 2 0 at% 2 0 3 5 % 2 0 D eliv erin g % 2 0 o n % 2 0 th e% 2 0 P ro m ise% 2 0 P ro o f% 2 0 1 0 2 5 0 7 .p d f N ask e, C M . (1 9 9 4 ). A la ska : A H isto ry o f th e 4 9 th S ta te. N o rm an , O K : U n iv ersity o f O k lah o m a P ress. T h o m as, M . (1 9 8 6 ). “T h e A lask a N ativ e C laim s S ettlem en t A ct: C o n flict an d C o n tro v ersy .” P o la r R eco rd , V o l. 2 3 , N o . 1 4 2 , 2 7 3 6 . N a t iv e C o r p o r a t io n s : F u r t h e r R e a d in g s S o , w h at’s th e b o tto m lin e— h as A N C S A b een a su ccess o r a failu re? H av e th e N ativ e co rp o ratio n s b en efited th e N ativ e co m m u n ity , o r n o t? If y o u lo o k o n ly at th e b o tto m lin e— th at is, ju st at th e eco n o m ic p erfo rm an ce o f th e N ativ e co rp o ratio n s th em selv es— it’s fair to say th at, after a ro ck y start, m an y o f th e reg io n al co rp o ratio n s h av e d o n e fairly w ell. In 2 0 0 4 , sev en o f th e to p ten A lask ao w n ed b u sin ess w ere N ativ e reg io n al co rp o ratio n s, w h ich d istrib u ted $ 1 1 7 .5 m illio n in sh areh o ld er d iv id en d s, em p lo y ed 3 ,1 1 6 N ativ e sh areh o ld ers, an d p aid $ 5 .4 m illio n in sch o larsh ip s fo r N ativ e stu d en ts, (L in x w iler, 2 0 0 7 ) L ik e m u ch o f th e o ild ep en d en t A lask a eco n o m y , th e reg io n al co rp o ratio n s are h ig h ly sen sitiv e to flu ctu atio n s in th e p rice o f o il, an d th eir p erfo rm an ce in an y g iv en y ear w ill reflect w h eth er th e o il b u sin ess is d o in g w ell o r p o o rly . N o n eth eless, m an y o f th ese co rp o ratio n s h av e m atu red as b u sin esses an d are p ro v id in g sig n ifican t eco n o m ic b en efits fo r th eir N ativ e sh areh o ld ers. T h e eco n o m ic p erfo rm an ce o f th e v illag e co rp o ratio n s h as b een sp o ttier. M an y o f th e v illag e co rp o ratio n s w ere lo cated in rem o te ru ral areas w ith ex trem ely lim ited o p p o rtu n ities fo r eco n o m ic d ev elo p m en t. W h ile so m e v illag e co rp o ratio n s— p articu larly th o se in m o re d en sely p o p u lated areas w ith easy access to o u tsid e m ark ets— h av e fared w ell, o th ers h av e b een fo rce to m erg e o r h av e g o n e o u t o f b u sin ess. (T h o m as, 1 9 8 5 ) B u t is eco n o m ic p erfo rm a n ce all th at really m atters? W h ile A N C S A w as d esig n ed o n ly to p ro v id e A lask a N ativ es w ith o p p o rtu n ities fo r eco n o m ic d ev elo p m en t, m an y N ativ es saw th e co rp o ratio n sy stem as a su b stitu te fo r— o r a riv al to — th e trad itio n al stru ctu res o f trib al g o v ern m en t. A m o n g A lask a N ativ es, trib es are g en erally asso ciated w ith in d iv id u al v illag es (A m erican In d ian R eso u rce D irecto ry , 2 0 1 6 ); m an y o f th e su ccessfu l v illag e co rp o ratio n s h av e estab lish ed n o n p ro fit ag en cies to p ro v id e h ealth care an d o th er so cial serv ices to N ativ e sh areh o ld ers. A t th e sam e tim e, th e p ressu re to tu rn a p ro fit led m an y co rp o ratio n s, b o th reg io n al an d v illag e, to b rin g in o u tsid e ex ecu tiv es to ru n th e b u sin esses— b y p assin g trib al lead ers an d E ld ers, w h o h av e trad itio n ally h ad a rev ered p lace in A lask a N ativ e so ciety . In recen t y ears, m an y N ativ es h av e q u estio n ed th e ex ten t to w h ich th e co rp o ratio n sy stem m ig h t b e su p p lan tin g so m e trib al stru ctu res an d w eak en in g ties to N ativ e h eritag e. In so m e areas, trib al g o v ern m en t h as seen a resu rg en ce in im p o rtan ce. T h e read in g s in th is learn in g b lo ck lo o k at tw o sid es o f th e A N C S A q u estio n : th e eco n o m ic p erfo rm an ce o f th e N ativ e co rp o ratio n s an d th eir relatio n sh ip to th e N ativ e h eritag e an d trib al stru ctu res. B o th articles are tak en fro m th e sam e acad em ic jo u rn al: Jo u rn a l o f L a n d , R eso u rces, a n d E n viro n m en ta l L a w , V o l. 2 5 , N o . 2 (W in ter, 2 0 0 5 ). A N C S A U n r e a liz e d : O u r L iv e s A r e N o t M e a su r e d in D o lla r s T h e fo llo w in g ex cerp t is fro m an article b y Jam es A llaw ay , a p ro fesso r an d ex p ert o n su stain ab le eco n o m ic d ev elo p m en t, an d B y ro n M allett, fo rm er p resid en t o f th e A lask a F ed eratio n o f N ativ es an d fo rm er C E O o f S ealask a, o n e o f th e larg er N ativ e reg io n al co rp o ratio n s. Y o u can read it at th is lin k , w h ich w ill tak e y o u to th e Jo u rn a l o f L a n d , R eso u rces, a n d E n viro n m en ta l L a w ; y o u can fin d th is sp ecific article in th e T ab le o f C o n ten ts o n th e left sid e o f th e p ag e. C lick o n th e title o f th e article to read , d o w n lo ad , an d p rin t a co p y o f th e tex t. T h ese read in g s are p ro v id ed b y th e S h ap iro L ib rary . T h is rea d in g is req u ired . Y o u w ill h a ve to lo g in to S h a p iro L ib ra ry w ith yo u r S N H U cred en tia ls. O n e o f th e leg acies o f A N C S A ‘s sh o rt h isto ry is th e co n fu sio n it h as cau sed , in clu d in g co n fu sio n o v er g o v ern in g stru ctu res. C ertain ly in S o u th east A lask a w e h av e k n o w n th at clan s, fam ily , an d fam ily relatio n sh ip s w ere critical in th e co n d u ct o f o u r affairs. I th in k th is w as th e case all acro ss th e state. E x istin g trad itio n al g o v ern in g g ro u p s, w ith th eir relatio n sh ip s an d stru ctu res, d id n o t g o aw ay w ith A N C S A . In fact, esp ecially in th e last d ecad e, th ere h as b een a resu rg en ce o f th o se in stitu tio n s. T h e resu rg en ce h as b een felt an d seen all acro ss th e state, p articu larly b ecau se th ere w as a u n iv ersal sen se th at A N C S A , an d o th er effo rts th at d eal w ith o u r circu m stan ces, w ere n o t g ettin g at th e co re o f w h at w e n eed ed . It is cru cial th at th ere is a p lace fo r trad itio n al trib al g o v ern m en tal stru ctu res. I th in k th e em erg en ce o f trib es in recen t y ears is n o t so m u ch ab o u t g o v ern m en tal stru ctu res, b u t is a reassertio n th at w e w ill tak e h o ld o f o u r o w n liv es. W e w ill b e resp o n sib le fo r o u r d estin ies, w h ich is a p o w erfu l id eal. It also p laces a p ro fo u n d o b lig atio n o n N ativ e p eo p le. T h ere is a v ital p lace fo r E ld ers h ere. W e can n o t k n o w th e p ast an d h av e a sen se o f v alu es, w e can n o t h av e a sen se o f p lace o r p u rp o se, w ith o u t E ld ers. E ld ers are an im p o rtan t p art o f th e sp iritu al p ath . T h ey carry th e fire. W e d o n o t n eed to in stitu tio n alize th e ro le o f E ld ers, o th er th an to su stain th em m aterially . If w e d o , th ey w ill su stain u s sp iritu ally . A la sk a N a tiv e s a n d th e N e w H a r p o o n : E c o n o m ic P e r fo r m a n c e o f th e A N C S A R e g io n a l C o r p o r a tio n s T h e fo llo w in g ex cerp t is fro m an article b y S tep h en C o lt, an eco n o m ist at th e U n iv ersity o f A lask a A n ch o rag e an d an ex p ert o n A lask a N ativ e co rp o ratio n s. Y o u can read it at th is lin k , w h ich w ill tak e y o u to th e Jo u rn a l o f L a n d , R eso u rces, a n d E n viro n m en ta l L a w ; y o u can fin d th is sp ecific article in th e T ab le o f C o n ten ts o n th e left sid e o f th e p ag e. C lick o n th e title o f th e article to read , d o w n lo ad , an d p rin t a co p y o f th e tex t. T h ese read in g s are p ro v id ed b y th e S h ap iro L ib rary . T h is rea d in g is req u ired . Y o u w ill h a ve to lo g in to S h a p iro L ib ra ry w ith yo u r S N H U cred en tia ls. A n Iñ u p iat lead er, C h arlie E d w ard sen , called th e [N ativ e reg io n al] co rp o ratio n s th e “n ew h arp o o n “— a referen ce to h is p eo p le’s h isto ric relian ce o n w h alin g . …F o r at least th e first tw en ty y ears o f o p eratio n — fro m 1 9 7 3 to 1 9 9 3 — th e eco n o m ic p erfo rm an ce o f th e reg io n al co rp o ratio n s w as su rp risin g ly p o o r. T h ro u g h 1 9 9 3 , th ese co rp o ratio n s as a g ro u p lo st ab o u t $ 3 8 0 m illio n , o r m o re th an eig h ty p ercen t o f th eir o rig in al cash en d o w m en t, in d irect b u sin ess o p eratio n s. O n ly th e o n etim e sale o f o ld g ro w th tim b er an d o th er n atu ral assets an d a o n etim e tax w in d fall allo w ed th em to rep o rt p o sitiv e acco u n tin g in co m e. B eh in d th e p o o r av erag e p erfo rm an ce, h o w ev er, is a su rp risin g am o u n t o f v ariatio n th at in clu d es so m e real su ccess sto ries. C u m u lativ e p er cap ita d iv id en d s fro m 1 9 7 4 th ro u g h 1 9 9 9 v aried fro m $ 5 0 to m o re th an $ 3 4 ,0 0 0 . T h e av erag e an n u al retu rn (in clu d in g in co m e fro m reso u rce sales an d tax w in d falls) fo r th e co rp o ratio n s w as ab o u t fiv e p ercen t o f b o o k eq u ity — b u t th is retu rn v aried am o n g co rp o ratio n s fro m m in u s fifty p ercen t to p lu s tw en ty sev en p ercen t. A n d b ey o n d fin an cial retu rn s, sev eral co rp o ratio n s p ro v id ed h u n d red s o f h ig h w ag e jo b s fo r th eir N ativ e sh areh o ld ers, w h ile o th ers p ro v id ed n o n e. …T h ro u g h th eir first tw en ty y ears, A lask a N ativ e reg io n al co rp o ratio n s co u ld n o t p arlay co n tro l o f lan d , n atu ral reso u rces, an d cap ital in to su stain ed p ro fits— an d in fact su stain ed larg e lo sses in th e attem p t….L im ited an aly sis o f m o re recen t d ata sh o w s th at th e co rp o ratio n s d ram atically im p ro v ed th eir fin an cial p erfo rm an ce d u rin g th e 1 9 9 0 s. U sin g a m easu re o f ad ju sted n et in co m e th at ex clu d ed tax w in d falls an d o n etim e sales o f n atu ral reso u rce assets, th ey lo st $ 2 5 0 m illio n b etw een 1 9 7 4 an d 1 9 9 1 . B u t in 1 9 9 2 th is m easu re o f ad ju sted n et in co m e sw itch ed fro m b ein g g en erally n eg ativ e to g en erally p o sitiv e an d g ro w in g . B etw een 1 9 9 2 an d 1 9 9 8 th ey earn ed $ 7 1 0 m illio n …. …[T ]h e co rp o ratio n s h av e learn ed fro m so m e early m istak es d u rin g th ese startu p y ears….T h eir recen t su ccess su g g ests th at th e ch allen g e o f eco n o m ic d ev elo p m en t in a rem o te reg io n can b e m et, at least in p art, b y p articip atin g in th e larg er n atio n al an d g lo b al eco n o m y . R e fe re n c e s A m erican In d ian R eso u rce D irecto ry (2 0 1 6 ). A lask a N ativ e V illag es. R etriev ed fro m w eb .arch iv e.o rg /w eb /2 0 0 5 1 1 2 5 0 0 1 1 0 7 /h ttp ://w w w .in d ian s.o rg /R eso u rce/F ed T rib es9 9 /R eg io n 1 /reg io n 1 .h tm l, Ju n e1 0 , 2 0 1 6 . L in x w iler, J. (2 0 0 7 ) T h e A lask a N ativ e C laim s S ettlem en t A ct at 3 5 : D eliv erin g o n th e P ro m ise. R etriev ed fro m w w w .lb b law y ers.co m /an csa/A N C S A % 2 0 at% 2 0 3 5 % 2 0 D eliv erin g % 2 0 o n % 2 0 th e% 2 0 P ro m ise% 2 0 P ro o f% 2 0 1 0 2 5 0 7 .p d f T h o m as, M . (1 9 8 6 ). “T h e A lask a N ativ e C laim s S ettlem en t A ct: C o n flict an d C o n tro v ersy .” P o la r R eco rd , V o l. 2 3 , N o . 1 4 2 , 2 7 3 6 . T h e m e : T h in k in g A b o u t H is t o r y | L e a r n in g B lo c k 8 -2 : W h y S t u d y H is t o r y ? A t th e ro o t o f th is co u rse is a fu n d am en tal q u estio n : W h y stu d y h isto ry? A s w e’v e said b efo re, th e p u rp o se o f stu d y in g h isto ry is n o t to catalo g u e a lo n g list o f n am es an d d ates. R ath er, th e p u rp o se o f stu d y in g h isto ry is to learn m o re ab o u t th e w o rld aro u n d u s, ab o u t h u m an so ciety an d , in th e en d , ab o u t o u rselv es. H isto ry is also a to o l th at can h elp u s in w h atev er acad em ic d iscip lin e o r p ro fessio n al career w e ch o o se to p u rsu e. A s w e saw in T h em e: A p p ro ach es to H isto ry , h isto rical th in k in g is a sk ill th at can b e ap p lied to a w id e ran g e o f p ro b lem s an d issu es, b o th in th e classro o m an d in ev ery d ay life. T h e fo llo w in g p assag e is ex cerp ted fro m an essay b y th e p ro m in en t h isto rian P eter N . S tearn s, w h ich is featu red o n th e w eb site o f th e A m erican H isto rical A sso ciatio n . It p ro v id es a clear su m m ary o f h o w stu d y in g h isto ry can b en efit th o se w h o d o n ‘t ch o o se to m ak e h isto ry th eir life’s w o rk — w h ich is to say , th e v ast m ajo rity o f to d ay ‘s h isto ry stu d en ts: W h y S tu d y H isto r y ? In th e first p lace, h isto ry o ffers a sto reh o u se o f in fo rm atio n ab o u t h o w p eo p le an d so cieties b eh av e. U n d erstan d in g th e o p eratio n s o f p eo p le an d so cieties is d ifficu lt, th o u g h a n u m b er o f d iscip lin es m ak e th e attem p t. A n ex clu siv e relian ce o n cu rren t d ata w o u ld n eed lessly h an d icap o u r effo rts. H o w can w e ev alu ate w ar if th e n atio n is at p eace— u n less w e u se h isto rical m aterials? H o w can w e u n d erstan d g en iu s, th e in flu en ce o f tech n o lo g ical in n o v atio n , o r th e ro le th at b eliefs p lay in sh ap in g fam ily life, if w e d o n ‘t u se w h at w e k n o w ab o u t ex p erien ces in th e p ast?… T h e arg u m en t I m ak e p iv o ts o n a ten sio n th at u n d erlies ev ery en co u n ter w ith th e p ast: th e ten sio n b etw een th e fam iliar an d th e stran g e, b etw een feelin g s o f p ro x im ity to an d feelin g s o f d istan ce fro m th e p eo p le w e seek to u n d erstan d . N eith er o f th ese p o les d o es fu ll ju stice to h isto ry ‘s co m p lex ity , an d v eerin g to o n e sid e o r th e o th er o n ly d u lls h isto ry ‘s jag g ed ed g es an d leav es u s w ith clich é an d caricatu re. F u rth erm o re, I claim th at th e essen ce o f ach iev in g m atu re h isto rical th o u g h t rests p recisely o n o u r ab ility to n av ig ate th e jag g ed lan d scap e o f h isto ry , to trav erse th e terrain th at lies b etw een th e p o les o f fam iliarity w ith an d d istan ce fro m th e p ast. P ro fesso r S tearn s’ fu ll essay can b e fo u n d at th is lin k . T h is rea d in g is req u ired . A s a stu d en t o f h isto ry , y o u h av e th e o p p o rtu n ity to ap p ly h isto rical th in k in g to y o u r o w n life. In a b ro ad , p h ilo so p h ical sen se, stu d y in g h isto ry w ill h elp y o u to u n d erstan d h o w th e d ecisio n s y o u m ak e to d ay can cau se d ifferen t o p tio n s to o p en u p to m o rro w ; to see th e im p o rtan ce o f ju d g in g ev en ts in co n tex t; an d to b e ab le to d eal w ith th e co m p lex ity o f circu m stan ces th at co n fro n t y o u . A n d in a h ig h ly p ractical sen se, th e critical th in k in g sk ills y o u d ev elo p in th is co u rse can ap p ly d irectly to y o u r o th er acad em ic w o rk at S N H U . T h is learn in g b lo ck lo o k s at th e p ractical ap p licatio n o f h isto rical th in k in g sk ills to o th er acad em ic d iscip lin es. A stu d y o f h isto ry is essen tial fo r g o o d citizen sh ip . T h is is th e m o st co m m o n ju stificatio n fo r th e p lace o f h isto ry in sch o o l cu rricu la. S o m etim es ad v o cates o f citizen sh ip h isto ry h o p e m erely to p ro m o te n atio n al id en tity an d lo y alty th ro u g h a h isto ry sp iced b y v iv id sto ries an d lesso n s in in d iv id u al su ccess an d m o rality . B u t th e im p o rtan ce o f h isto ry fo r citizen sh ip g o es b ey o n d th is n arro w g o al an d can ev en ch allen g e it at so m e p o in ts…. W h at d o es a w elltrain ed stu d en t o f h isto ry , sch o o led to w o rk o n p ast m aterials an d o n case stu d ies in so cial ch an g e, learn h o w to d o ? T h e list is m an ag eab le, b u t it co n tain s sev eral o v erlap p in g categ o ries. T h e A b ility to A ssess E vid en ce. T h e stu d y o f h isto ry b u ild s ex p erien ce in d ealin g w ith an d assessin g v ario u s k in d s o f ev id en ce— th e so rts o f ev id en ce h isto rian s u se in sh ap in g th e m o st accu rate p ictu res o f th e p ast th at th ey can . L earn in g h o w to in terp ret th e statem en ts o f p ast p o litical lead ers — o n e k in d o f ev id en ce— h elp s fo rm th e cap acity to d istin g u ish b etw een th e o b jectiv e an d th e self serv in g am o n g statem en ts m ad e b y p resen td ay p o litical lead ers. L earn in g h o w to co m b in e d ifferen t k in d s o f ev id en ce— p u b lic statem en ts, p riv ate reco rd s, n u m erical d ata, v isu al m aterials— d ev elo p s th e ab ility to m ak e co h eren t arg u m en ts b ased o n a v ariety o f d ata. T h is sk ill can also b e ap p lied to in fo rm atio n en co u n tered in ev ery d ay life. T h e A b ility to A ssess C o n flictin g In terp reta tio n s. L earn in g h isto ry m ean s g ain in g so m e sk ill in so rtin g th ro u g h d iv erse, o ften co n flictin g in terp retatio n s. U n d erstan d in g h o w so cieties w o rk — th e cen tral g o al o f h isto rical stu d y — is in h eren tly im p recise, an d th e sam e certain ly h o ld s tru e fo r u n d erstan d in g w h at is g o in g o n in th e p resen t d ay . L earn in g h o w to id en tify an d ev alu ate co n flictin g in terp retatio n s is an essen tial citizen sh ip sk ill fo r w h ich h isto ry , as an o ften co n tested lab o rato ry o f h u m an ex p erien ce, p ro v id es train in g . T h is is o n e area in w h ich th e fu ll b en efits o f h isto rical stu d y so m etim es clash w ith th e n arro w er u ses o f th e p ast to co n stru ct id en tity . E x p erien ce in ex am in in g p ast situ atio n s p ro v id es a co n stru ctiv ely critical sen se th at can b e ap p lied to p artisan claim s ab o u t th e g lo ries o f n atio n al o r g ro u p id en tity . T h e stu d y o f h isto ry in n o sen se u n d erm in es lo y alty o r co m m itm en t, b u t it d o es teach th e n eed fo r assessin g arg u m en ts, an d it p ro v id es o p p o rtu n ities to en g ag e in d eb ate an d ach iev e p ersp ectiv e. E xp erien ce in A ssessin g P a st E xa m p les o f C h a n g e. E x p erien ce in assessin g p ast ex am p les o f ch an g e is v ital to u n d erstan d in g ch an g e in so ciety to d ay — it’s an essen tial sk ill in w h at w e are reg u larly to ld is o u r “ev erch an g in g w o rld .” A n aly sis o f ch an g e m ean s d ev elo p in g so m e cap acity fo r d eterm in in g th e m ag n itu d e an d sig n ifican ce o f ch an g e, fo r so m e ch an g es are m o re fu n d am en tal th an o th ers. C o m p arin g p articu lar ch an g es to relev an t ex am p les fro m th e p ast h elp s stu d en ts o f h isto ry d ev elo p th is cap acity . T h e ab ility to id en tify th e co n tin u ities th at alw ay s acco m p an y ev en th e m o st d ram atic ch an g es also co m es fro m stu d y in g h isto ry , as d o es th e sk ill to d eterm in e p ro b ab le cau ses o f ch an g e. L earn in g h isto ry h elp s o n e fig u re o u t, fo r ex am p le, if o n e m ain facto r— su ch as a tech n o lo g ical in n o v atio n o r so m e d elib erate n ew p o licy — acco u n ts fo r a ch an g e o r w h eth er, as is m o re co m m o n ly th e case, a n u m b er o f facto rs co m b in e to g en erate th e actu al ch an g e th at o ccu rs. L e a r n in g O b je c tiv e s In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u w ill: A ssess th e u sefu ln ess o f h isto rical th in k in g in n o n h isto rical co n tex ts A p p ly h isto rical th in k in g to sp ecific acad em ic assig n m en ts ” T h e F a m ilia r a n d t h e S t r a n g e ” S am W in eb u rg , a p ro fesso r o f ed u catio n w h o h as w ritten ex ten siv ely ab o u t h isto rical th in k in g , o ffers a m o re ly rical— b u t n o less co m p ellin g — d escrip tio n o f th e v alu e o f h isto ry in o u r d aily liv es. H e d escrib es h isto rical th in k in g as th e p ro cess o f n av ig atin g “th e ten sio n b etw een th e fam iliar an d th e stran g e,” b o th o f w h ich are essen tial to o u r u n d erstan d in g o f th e p ast. T h e p assag e b elo w is ex cerp ted fro m “H isto rical T h in k in g an d O th er U n n atu ral A cts”, p ag e 4 8 9 . T h ese read in g s are p ro v id ed b y th e S h ap iro L ib rary . T h is rea d in g is req u ired . Y o u w ill h a ve to lo g in to S h a p iro L ib ra ry w ith yo u r S N H U cred en tia ls to a ccess th is a rticle. F r o m ” H isto r ic a l T h in k in g a n d O th e r U n n a tu r a l A c ts” W h at is h isto ry g o o d fo r? W h y ev en teach it in sch o o ls? In a n u tsh ell m y claim is th at h isto ry h o ld s th e p o ten tial, o n ly p artially realized , o f h u m an izin g u s in w ay s o ffered b y few o th er areas in th e sch o o l cu rricu lu m . I m ak e n o claim o f o rig in ality in arg u in g th is p o in t o f v iew . B u t each g en eratio n , I b eliev e, m u st an sw er fo r itself an ew w h y th e stu d y o f th e p ast is im p o rtan t… T h e arg u m en t I m ak e p iv o ts o n a ten sio n th at u n d erlies ev ery en co u n ter w ith th e p ast: th e ten sio n b etw een th e fam iliar an d th e stran g e, b etw een feelin g s o f p ro x im ity to an d feelin g s o f d istan ce fro m th e p eo p le w e seek to u n d erstan d . N eith er o f th ese p o les d o es fu ll ju stice to h isto ry ‘s co m p lex ity , an d v eerin g to o n e sid e o r th e o th er o n ly d u lls h isto ry ‘s jag g ed ed g es an d leav es u s w ith clich é an d caricatu re. F u rth erm o re, I claim th at th e essen ce o f ach iev in g m atu re h isto rical th o u g h t rests p recisely o n o u r ab ility to n av ig ate th e jag g ed lan d scap e o f h isto ry , to trav erse th e terrain th at lies b etw een th e p o les o f fam iliarity w ith an d d istan ce fro m th e p ast. T h e p o le o f fam iliarity p u lls m o st stro n g ly . T h e fam iliar p ast en tices u s w ith th e p ro m ise th at w e can lo cate o u r o w n p lace in th e stream o f tim e an d so lid ify o u r id en tity in th e p resen t. B y h itch in g o u r o w n sto ries to th e sto ries o f th o se w h o w en t b efo re u s, th e p ast b eco m es a u sefu l reso u rce in o u r ev ery d ay liv es, an en d less sto reh o u se o f raw m aterials to b e sh ap ed fo r o u r p resen t n eed s. S itu atin g o u rselv es in tim e is a b asic h u m an n eed . In d eed , it is im p o ssib le to co n ceiv e o f life o n th e p lan et w ith o u t d o in g so . B u t in v iew in g th e p ast as u sab le, as so m eth in g th at sp eak s to u s w ith o u t in term ed iary o r tran slatio n , w e en d u p tu rn in g it in to y et an o th er co m m o d ity fo r o u r in stan t co n su m p tio n . W e d iscard o r ju st ig n o re v ast reg io n s o f th e p ast th at eith er co n trad ict o u r cu rren t n eed s o r fail to alig n easily w ith th em …. T h e o th er p o le in th is ten sio n , th e stran g en ess o f th e p ast, o ffers th e p o ssib ility o f su rp rise an d am azem en t, o f en co u n terin g p eo p le, p laces, an d tim es th at sp u r u s to reco n sid er h o w w e see o u rselv es as h u m an b ein g s. A n en co u n ter w ith th is p ast can b e m in d ex p an d in g in th e b est sen se o f th e term . Y et, tak en to ex trem es, th is ap p ro ach carries its o w n set o f p ro b lem s. R eg ard in g th e p ast “o n its o w n term s”— d etach ed fro m th e circu m stan ces, co n cern s, an d n eed s o f th e p resen t— to o o ften resu lts in a k in d o f eso teric ex o ticism , p recisely th e co n clu sio n o n e co m es to after a to u r th ro u g h th e m o n o g rap h ic literatu re th at d efin es co n tem p o rary h isto rical p ractice. M o st o f th is sp ecialized literatu re m ay en g ag e th e atten tio n o f a sm all co terie o f p ro fessio n als, b u t it fails to en g ag e th e in terest o f an y o n e else. C o m m u n ic a tin g H isto r ic a l Id e a s T h ere’s an o th er sid e to h isto rical th in k in g as w ell: b ein g ab le to d ev elo p an d co m m u n icate y o u r id eas ab o u t h isto ry . F ram in g th e rig h t research q u estio n , d o in g research to d ev elo p a th esis, u sin g h isto rical ev id en ce to d ev elo p arg u m en ts th at su p p o rt y o u r th esis— th ese are all sk ills th at w ill serv e y o u w ell in y o u r o th er acad em ic p u rsu its. T h in k b ack ab o u t th e essay y o u ‘v e b een p rep arin g fo r th is co u rse. O v er th e last sev eral w eek s y o u ‘v e h ad to research p rim ary an d seco n d ary so u rces; assess th e reliab ility o f th o se so u rces; in co rp o rate th e ev id en ce y o u ‘v e fo u n d in to th e b o d y o f y o u r essay ; an d p ro p erly cite all th e in fo rm atio n y o u ‘v e g ath ered . W h en w ill y o u ev er u se th o se sk ills ag ain ? M o st lik ely , it w ill b e in th e n ex t co u rse y o u tak e d u rin g y o u r co lleg e career. In C o n c lu s io n : H is t o r ic a l P e r s p e c t iv e T h e d raft y o u ‘v e alread y su b m itted to y o u r in stru cto r fo r feed b ack co n tain s alm o st all th e essen tial elem en ts o f a th o ro u g h h isto rical an aly sis: a clear an d sp ecific th esis statem en t; b ack g ro u n d in fo rm atio n an d co n tex t; an aly tical arg u m en ts to su p p o rt y o u r th esis; an d h isto rical ev id en ce to b u ttress y o u r arg u m en ts. W h at’s m issin g ? Y o u r o w n h isto rica l p ersp ective. A s w e’v e said b efo re, th in k in g ab o u t h isto ry req u ires m o re th an assem b lin g an d ev alu atin g in fo rm atio n . It also req u ires y o u to th in k ab o u t th e im p act th at stu d y in g h isto ry can h av e o n y o u p erso n ally — b y ch an g in g th e w ay y o u th in k ab o u t sp ecific h isto rical ev en ts, an d b ro ad en in g y o u r u n d erstan d in g o f h o w h isto rian s p u rsu e h isto rical tru th . T h e m e : T h in k in g A b o u t H is t o r y | L e a r n in g B lo c k 8 -3 : W r a p p in g It U p E arlier in th is th em e, y o u learn ed h o w to in co rp o rate so u rces in to y o u r h isto ry p ap er. Y o u also learn ed h o w to u se th e A P A C itatio n W izard to acco m p lish th is g o al. In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u sh o u ld ex p ect to tak e so m e tim e to rev iew y o u r w o rk an d to m ak e su re A L L so u rces in clu d ed as p arap h rase, su m m ary , o r q u o tatio n s fro m a so u rce are clearly an d accu rately cited . L e a r n in g O b je c tiv e s In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u w ill: R ev iew y o u r ex istin g citatio n s to en su re y o u h av e p ro p erly cited h isto rical ev id en ce to su p p o rt y o u r an aly sis A p p ly th e p ersp ectiv es g ain ed fro m h isto rical th in k in g to th e rem ain d er o f y o u r co u rse o f stu d y at S N H U T h ere is n o easy w ay aro u n d th e ten sio n b etw een th e fam iliar p ast, w h ich seem s so relev an t to o u r p resen t n eed s, an d th e p ast w h o se ap p licab ility is n o t im m ed iately m an ifest. T h e ten sio n ex ists b ecau se b o th asp ects o f h isto ry are essen tial an d irred u cib le. D etectin g p lag iarism is n o w a scien ce— an d it’s v ery h ard to g et aw ay w ith crib b in g in to d ay ‘s o n lin e w o rld . (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) A N o t e o n P la g ia r is m In T h em e: T h in k in g A b o u t H isto ry , L earn in g B lo ck 7 3 , y o u learn ed h o w to u se an d cite o u tsid e so u rces. T h e u se o f o u tsid e so u rces m ak es y o u r arg u m en t stro n g er b y sh o w in g th e read er th at y o u h av e d o n e research an d h av e facts an d ev id en ce to b ack u p y o u r claim s. In ad d itio n to u sin g th is ad d itio n al ev id en ce th ro u g h o u t th e essay , it is essen tial th at y o u u se p ro p er citatio n s to en su re th at all co n ten t is cred ited to th e o rig in al au th o r(s). C itatio n s h elp p ro tect th e in tellectu al p ro p erty o f o th ers. A s w e n o ted earlier, p ro p er citatio n is th e b est w ay to av o id an y accu satio n o f p lag iarism . Y o u p lag iarize if y o u u se so m eo n e’s ex act w o rd s w ith o u t u sin g q u o tatio n m ark s aro u n d th em an d citin g th em w ith an in tex t referen ce to th e so u rce an d fu ll d o cu m en tatio n fo r th e so u rce in th e referen ce list. Y o u p lag iarize if y o u u se so m eo n e else’s id eas, ev en if y o u p arap h rase, w ith o u t citin g th em w ith an in tex t referen ce to th e so u rce an d fu ll d o cu m en tatio n fo r th e so u rce in th e referen ce list. Y o u p lag iarize if y o u u se th e id eas o r stru ctu re o f id eas fro m an o th er p iece o f w ritin g w ith n o ack n o w led g em en t o r o n ly m in im al ack n o w led g em en t o f y o u r u se. A s a stu d en t, y o u m ay receiv e failin g g rad es o n assig n m en ts o r b e ex p elled fro m sch o o l if y o u p lag iarize. In th e b u sin ess w o rld , co m p an ies are o ften su ed fo r in frin g em en t o n in tellectu al p ro p erty rig h ts— u sin g m aterial th at so m eo n e else w ro te o r d esig n ed . Y o u can av o id p lag iarism b y p racticin g g o o d research h ab its— tak in g care to u se q u o tatio n m ark s aro u n d an y q u o tatio n o r b o rro w ed p h rase an d carefu lly d o cu m en tin g th e p ag e n u m b er an d citatio n in fo rm atio n fo r each so u rce, ev en in y o u r n o tes. P racticin g g o o d h ab its w h ile tak in g n o tes w ill p rev en t accid en tal slip u p s in th e w ritin g th at y o u tu rn in . T h e m e : T h in k in g A b o u t H is t o r y | L e a r n in g B lo c k 8 -4 : R e v is io n s a n d S u b m is s io n T h ro u g h o u t th is co u rse, y o u h av e b een learn in g ab o u t w ritin g an d research alo n g w ith h isto rical ev en ts an d issu es th at illu strate h o w to th in k lik e an h isto rian . A ll o f th is h as cu lm in ated in y o u r h isto rical ev en t an aly sis essay , w h ich y o u w ill fin ish an d su b m it in th is learn in g b lo ck . T h e sk ills y o u h av e learn ed in th is co u rse— su ch as h isto rical th in k in g , research , critical th in k in g , an d an aly tical w ritin g — w ill b e u sefu l in y o u r stu d ies at S N H U an d y o u r p erso n al an d p ro fessio n al life. W e h o p e y o u feel p ro u d ab o u t y o u r essay — an d w e also h o p e th e p ro cess o f research in g an d w ritin g it h as h elp ed y o u to learn m o re ab o u t h isto ry , ab o u t th e w o rld , an d ab o u t y o u rself. L e a r n in g O b je c tiv e s In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u w ill: L earn strateg ies fo r ed itin g an d rev isin g y o u r essay S u b m it y o u r co m p leted h isto rical an aly sis essay to y o u r in stru cto r N ew sp ap er rep o rters h av e ed ito rs to rev iew th eir w o rk , b u t y o u ‘ll h av e to h an d le th e rev isio n s y o u rself. (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) R e v is io n S t r a t e g ie s In ev ery fo rm , sty le, g en re, an d m ed iu m , n o m atter w h at y o u r sk ill lev el, rev isio n is essen tial to g o o d w ritin g . It’s th e d ifferen ce b etw een sh o w in g talen t an d g ettin g th e jo b d o n e. B y rev isin g y o u r w o rk , y o u tran sfo rm it fro m a reco rd o f y o u r o w n u n d erstan d in g to w ritin g th at co n n ects w ith read ers an d is ab le to sh ap e th eir u n d erstan d in g . W riters o ften th in k th at if th ey d id n ‘t see a p ro b lem th e first tim e, th ey w o n ‘t see it th e seco n d tim e eith er. B u t th is isn ‘t th e case w ith m an y p ro b lem s y o u can id en tify an d fix in th e first few stag es o f rev isio n . R ev isio n allo w s y o u to co m e b ack to y o u r p ap er w ith fresh ey es an d read it as a read er rath er th an as th e w riter w h o alread y k n o w s w h at h e o r sh e is say in g . If th ere is a g ap in ev id en ce o r p arag rap h s in serted w h ere th ey d o n ‘t lo g ically flo w , y o u ‘re m o st lik ely to n o tice th ese p ro b lem s after y o u ‘v e set y o u r p ap er asid e fo r a w h ile. If y o u ‘re lack in g to p ic sen ten ces fo r y o u r p arag rap h s, y o u are g o in g to h av e ju st as d ifficu lt a tim e fig u rin g o u t w h at y o u w ere say in g as y o u r read er w o u ld . S o co m e b ack to y o u r p ap er “as a read er” an d see w h at y o u can fin d d u rin g th ese rev isio n stag es. T h e o th er critical task in th e rev isio n p ro cess is im p lem en tin g th e feed b ack y o u h av e alread y receiv ed fro m y o u r in stru cto r. M ak e su re th at y o u h av e reread an y an d all in stru cto r feed b ack y o u receiv ed d u rin g th is co u rse, an d b e certain th at y o u h av e m ad e a ll su g g ested ch an g es. A s y o u p rep are to su b m it y o u r h isto rical an aly sis essay , y o u ‘ll w an t to reread y o u r selected read in g s, an d tak e ad d itio n al n o tes. A n d d o n ‘t b e sh y ab o u t em ailin g y o u r in stru cto r w ith an y rem ain in g q u estio n s. F in ally , rem em b er th at th e W ritin g C en ter is also av ailab le if y o u n eed ad d itio n al h elp w ith y o u r assig n m en ts in th is co u rse. G e n e r a l T ip s fo r R e v isio n B efo re y o u b eg in rev isin g y o u r essay , it is h elp fu l to co n sid er th e fo llo w in g g en eral tip s fo r rev isio n . T h ese tip s can ap p ly to an y w ritin g assig n m en t. 1 . G et so m e d ista n ce fro m y o u r p a p er. S et y o u r d raft asid e fo r a w h ile, p referab ly o v ern ig h t o r lo n g er. W h en y o u read it ag ain , try to assu m e y o u r au d ien ce’s p ersp ectiv e an d read y o u r w o rk w ith fresh ey es. 2 . G iv e y o u rself p len ty o f tim e to rev ise. D o n ‘t w ait u n til th e n ig h t b efo re a p ap er is d u e to attem p t rev isio n s. In stead , try to fin ish w ritin g y o u r d raft at least a few d ay s b efo re th e d ead lin e so y o u h av e tim e to reread an d to m ak e th e larg escale an d sm allscale ch an g es th at are n ecessary . 3 . P rin t o u t a h a rd co p y o f y o u r d ra ft. It is o ften d ifficu lt to catch g ram m ar an d sp ellin g erro rs w h en y o u read y o u r p ap er o n a co m p u ter screen . It is also h ard to g et a g o o d sen se o f th e en tirety o f y o u r p ap er, to see w h ere an d h o w y o u r d raft n eed s reo rg an izin g . R ev isin g a h ard co p y allo w s y o u to sp o t th ese p ro b lem s an d to m ak e n o tatio n s d irectly o n y o u r d raft as y o u read it. 4 . R ea d y o u r p a p er o u t lo u d . It is o ften easier to h ea r th e p arts o f y o u r d raft th at n eed clarificatio n o r co rrectio n th an it is to see th em . R ead in g y o u r p ap er alo u d w ith a p en o r p en cil in h an d w ill h elp y o u lo cate th e sen ten celev el ch an g es th at n eed to b e m ad e an d th e p laces w h ere y o u r w ritin g is co n fu sin g o r u n clear. L a r g e -sc a le r e v isio n s A fter y o u ‘re su re th at y o u r arg u m en t is ad d ressin g th e rig h t co n ten t to m eet y o u r p u rp o se, it’s tim e to u n d ertak e larg escale rev isio n s— th o se rev isio n s th at co n cern th e o rg an izatio n o f y o u r id eas an d fillin g in ev id en ce an d d etails to su p p o rt y o u r p o in ts. S o m e sectio n s an d p arag rap h s m ay req u ire rew ritin g at th is stag e, b u t y o u d o n ‘t n eed to lo o k fo r p ro o fread in g erro rs y et. S in ce y o u ‘ll b e ad d in g , rem o v in g , m o v in g , an d ch an g in g sen ten ces to b etter em p h asize y o u r o v erall m ean in g , y o u d o n ‘t n eed to g et b o g g ed d o w n in to th e d etails o f sen ten ce stru ctu re o r p u n ctu atio n ju st y et. W h en y o u retu rn to y o u r d raft, b eg in b y assessin g th e p ap er as a w h o le. Is y o u r th esis statem en t clearly stated ? D o y o u r m ajo r p o in ts su p p o rt y o u r th esis statem en t? H av e y o u su m m arized o p p o sin g v iew p o in ts w h en ap p ro p riate? O p en u p y o u r essay d raft in a w o rd p ro cessin g p ro g ram an d h ig h lig h t th e p arts o f th e essay th at resp o n d to th ese req u irem en ts. Y o u m ay ev en u se y o u r w o rd p ro cesso r’s co m m en tin g featu re to ad d a co m m en t to state th e ro le o f th e sectio n in y o u r essay . If y o u can ‘t id en tify a sectio n th at serv es o n e o f th ese fu n ctio n s, y o u sh o u ld create o n e an d su p p o rt th at sectio n w ith m o re d etails an d ev id en ce. S m a ll-sc a le r e v isio n s A fter y o u r p arag rap h s are in o rd er, it’s tim e to fo cu s o n sen ten celev el ch an g es. T h is p art o f th e rev isio n p ro cess is m ad e u p o f ed itin g — d ecid in g o n th e clearest w ay to p resen t an id ea— an d p ro o fread in g — co rrectin g erro rs in sp ellin g , g ram m ar, w o rd u sag e, an d sen ten ce stru ctu re. G ram m atical erro rs can d istract y o u r read er an d m ak e y o u r id eas seem h astily th ro w n to g eth er, ev en if y o u p u t sig n ifican t tim e in to y o u r d raft so far. U se th e q u estio n s b elo w to h elp id en tify an d co rrect co m m o n erro rs. A re y o u r sen ten ces g ram m atically co m p lete w ith a su b ject an d a v erb ? D o y o u v ary y o u r sen ten ces in sty le an d len g th ? H av e y o u u sed p u n ctu atio n co rrectly ? Is y o u r lan g u ag e sp ecific en o u g h o r to o v ag u e? Is y o u r to n e ap p ro p riate? D o y o u u n d erstan d th e m ean in g o f th e w o rd s y o u h av e u sed ? A re th ere an y h o m o n y m erro rs (lik e its v ersu s it’s, o r th eir v ersu s th ere)? S e lf-e v a lu a tio n T h e ch eck list b elo w w ill h elp y o u co n sid er y o u r p ro g ress an d d eterm in e w h ere y o u m ig h t im p ro v e th e p ap er. H o w are y o u in d icatin g th e ch an g es y o u ‘v e m ad e d u rin g th e rev isio n p ro cess? A re y o u sav in g d ifferen t v ersio n s o f y o u r p ap er? Is th e p ap er p ro p erly fo rm atted ? D o y o u h av e a clear, arg u ab le, an d easily id en tifiab le th esis? D o y o u h av e a clear fo cu s th ro u g h o u t y o u r essay th at co n n ects b ack to th e th esis? D o y o u d ev elo p y o u r m ain p o in ts in en o u g h d etail? D o y o u in clu d e en o u g h su p p o rt? H av e y o u ad d ed n ew d etails o r ev id en ce to stren g th en w eak er su p p o rtin g p o in ts? H av e y o u d eleted u n n ecessary o r red u n d an t m aterial? D o y o u p ro v id e en o u g h co n tex t in th e o p en in g p arag rap h (s) o f y o u r p ap er to o rien t th e read er? D o y o u d efin e k ey term s? D o es y o u r co n clu sio n restate y o u r m ain claim in fresh lan g u ag e an d rev iew th e m ajo r su p p o rtin g p o in ts? Is y o u r p ap er w ritten fro m an ap p ro p riate an d co n sisten t p o in t o f v iew ? H av e y o u co n sid ered y o u r au d ien ce? D o es y o u r p ap er flo w lo g ically fro m o n e p o in t to th e n ex t? A re th ere an y areas th at m ig h t co n fu se y o u r read ers? H av e y o u ed ited fo r erro rs in sp ellin g , g ram m ar, o r w o rd u sag e? H av e y o u set y o u r p ap er asid e fo r a d ay o r tw o an d reread it to ch eck fo r clarity ? R e fle c t io n a n d R e v is io n T h in k b ack to th e h isto rical case stu d ies th at h av e b een co v ered in th is co u rse: Irish im m ig ran t ex p erien ce Q u éb éco is im m ig ran t ex p erien ce W o m en ‘s su ffrag e an d th e N in eteen th A m en d m en t E q u al R ig h ts A m en d m en t S ch o o l d eseg reg atio n in B o sto n V o tin g R ig h ts A ct o f 1 9 6 5 C h ero k ee “T rail o f T ears” A lask a N ativ e C o rp o ratio n s T h e E n d W ith th e su b m issio n o f y o u r h isto rical ev en t an aly sis essay , y o u h av e co m p leted all th e co u rsew o rk fo r H isto ry 2 0 0 . B efo re y o u g o , th o u g h , p lease tak e ju st a co u p le o f m o m en ts to tak e sto ck o f w h at w e’v e acco m p lish ed in th is co u rse. W e’v e co v ered a lo t o f m aterial ab o u t a lo t o f d ifferen t g ro u p s o f p eo p le— im m ig ran ts, w o m en , A frican A m erican s, an d N ativ e A m erican s— an d h o w each o f th o se g ro u p s h as stru g g led , w ith v ary in g d eg rees o f su ccess, to attain th e fu ll p ro m ise o f eq u al rig h ts in A m erican so ciety . U n lik e m an y h isto ry co u rses, th o u g h , th is co u rse h asn ‘t fo cu sed o n th e n am es an d d ates th at m ak e u p th e h isto rical reco rd ; rath er, it h as tried to sh o w y o u h o w h isto ry w o rk s, an d h o w y o u can u se it in y o u r life. W e’v e ex p lo red th e w ay th at h isto rian s ap p ro ach h isto ry , th ro u g h th e p ro cess o f h isto rical th in k in g , th e ap p licatio n o f d ifferen t h isto rical len ses, an d th e assessm en t o f h isto rical sig n ifican ce. W e’v e lo o k ed at th e F iv e C ‘s o f h isto rical th in k in g — ch an g e, co n tex t, cau sality , co n tin g en cy , an d co m p lex ity — an d seen h o w th ey all w o rk to g eth er to create th e rich ly w o v en fab ric o f h isto rical u n d erstan d in g . T h is co u rse h as sh o w n y o u h o w to co m m u n icate h isto rical id eas— u sin g p rim ary an d seco n d ary so u rces to d ev elo p a th esis statem en t, an d th en tailo rin g y o u r statem en t to a sp ecific au d ien ce. It’s h elp ed y o u craft a w ritin g p lan to g u id e y o u r research an d w ritin g ab o u t a sp ecific h isto rical ev en t. A n d it’s ex p o sed y o u to th e p ro cess o f h isto rical an aly sis: th e u se o f h isto rical ev id en ce to d raw co n clu sio n s ab o u t a h isto rical ev en t, an d th en fo rm u late arg u m en ts to su p p o rt th o se co n clu sio n s. W ritin g y o u r h isto rical ev en t an aly sis essay req u ired y o u to u tilize h isto rical th in k in g , co m m u n icatio n s, an d an aly tic sk ills. A n d it in tro d u ced y o u to th e sp ecialized co m p o sitio n sk ills n eed ed to p ro d u ce an o rig in al, fu lly so u rced research p ap er. F in ally , it’s o u r h o p e th at th is co u rse h as ch an g ed th e w ay y o u th in k a b o u t h isto ry . W e h o p e it’s g iv en y o u a b etter ap p reciatio n o f h o w th e p ast in fo rm s th e p resen t, an d h o w an u n d erstan d in g o f h isto ry can b en efit y o u th ro u g h o u t y o u r acad em ic career— an d th ro u g h o u t y o u r life.
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(C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) T h e m e : T h in k in g A b o u t H is t o r y O v e r v ie w P erh ap s th e m o st im p o rtan t p art o f th in k in g lik e a h isto rian is k n o w in g h o w to th in k a b o u t h isto ry . T h at m ean s u n d erstan d in g h o w h isto ry can affect y o u , in y o u r o w n life— an d k n o w in g h o w h isto rian s g o ab o u t th e b u sin ess o f ex p lain in g h isto ry to o th ers. T h e p ro cess o f research in g a h isto rical ev en t— th e p ro cess y o u ‘re g o in g th ro u g h in th is co u rse— w ill ch an g e y o u in m an y d ifferen t w ay s. O b v io u sly , it w ill g iv e y o u n ew p ersp ectiv es an d n ew in sig h ts ab o u t th e ev en t y o u ‘re research in g . B u t it w ill also g iv e y o u n ew p ersp ectiv es an d n ew in sig h ts ab o u t h o w th e w o rld w o rk s. O n e o f th e in sig h ts y o u ‘re lik ely to g ain in v o lv es th e id ea o f h isto rical co m p lex ity . T h at’s th e id ea th at th ere are n o easy o r sim p le ex p lan atio n s fo r h isto rical ev en ts; th e p ro cess o f h isto rical ch an g e is th e p ro d u ct o f a co m p licated array o f cau ses an d co n tin g en t ev en ts, all o f w h ich n eed to b e u n d ersto o d in th e co n tex t in w h ich th ey to o k p lace. T h e id ea th at th ere are n o easy ex p lan atio n s ap p lies n o t ju st to h isto ry b u t also to life. B ein g ab le to reco g n ize th at co m p lex ity , an d to av o id sim p listic reaso n in g , is a life sk ill th at w ill serv e y o u w ell in w h atev er field y o u ch o o se to p u rsu e. In th is th em e, w e’ll in tro d u ce y o u to th e id ea o f h isto rical co m p lex ity an d ask y o u to th in k ab o u t h o w d ifferen t h isto rical situ atio n s m ay b e m o re co m p lex th an th ey first ap p ear. T h in k in g ab o u t h isto ry also m ean s k n o w in g h o w to ap p ly h isto rical co n cep ts to y o u r o w n life. In th is th em e, w e’ll ask y o u to th in k ab o u t th e im p act th at h isto rical th in k in g m ay h av e o n th e ch o ices y o u m ak e in y o u r acad em ic career. A n d y o u ‘ll see h o w th e sk ills y o u ‘v e acq u ired in th is co u rse can b e ap p lied to o th er acad em ic d iscip lin es. A t th e en d o f T h em e: T h in k in g A b o u t H isto ry , y o u ‘ll h av e th e o p p o rtu n ity to ap p ly th ese co n cep ts d irectly . T h at’s w h en y o u ‘ll b e ask ed to su b m it th e fin al v ersio n o f th e essay co n tain in g y o u r h isto rical ev en t an aly sis. L e a r n in g O u tc o m e A fter co m p letin g th is th em e, y o u sh o u ld b e ab le to : Illu strate th e im p act o f h isto rical th in k in g o n y o u r p erso n al an d p ro fessio n al ex p erien ces C opyright © 2017 M indE dge Inc. A ll rights reserved. D uplication prohibited. A n ex h ib it o f b u ffalo h id e artw o rk at th e N atio n al M u seu m o f th e A m erican In d ian . (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) T h e m e : T h in k in g A b o u t H is t o r y | L e a r n in g B lo c k 7 -1 : C iv il R ig h t s a n d E c o n o m ic L ib e r t y R ig h t s , O p p o r t u n it y , a n d N a t iv e A m e r ic a n s A m erican s lik e to th in k o f th e U n ited S tates as th e “L an d o f O p p o rtu n ity “— th e p lace w h ere an y o n e w h o w o rk s h ard an d p lay s b y th e ru les can b u ild a b etter life. T h e p ro m ise o f o p p o rtu n ity h as trad itio n ally b een a lu re to im m ig ran ts, m illio n s o f w h o m cam e to A m erica in search o f b etter co n d itio n s th an th ey left b eh in d in th eir h o m elan d s. B u t w h at o f all th o se p eo p le w h o se an cesto rs w ere n o t im m ig ran ts, as w e co m m o n ly u se th e term — th e m illio n s o f A m erican s w h o se fo reb ears w ere alread y liv in g in w h at is n o w th e U n ited S tates, lo n g b efo re th e first E u ro p ean s step p ed o ff th e b o at? T h e relatio n sh ip b etw een th e A m erican g o v ern m en t an d N ativ e A m erican s, th e in d ig en o u s p eo p les o f th e A m ericas, h as b een a co m p lex , co n ten tio u s, an d so m etim es trag ic o n e. A cco rd in g to th e U .S . C en su s B u reau , th e term N a tive A m erica n co m p rises tw o g ro u p s: A m erican In d ian s an d A lask a N ativ es. T o g eth er, th ese g ro u p s m ak e u p th e N ativ e A m erican p o p u latio n ; N ativ e H aw aiian s are co u n ted sep arately , b ecau se th eir N ativ e g ro u p s w ere n o t in d ig en o u s to N o rth o r S o u th A m erica. B eg in n in g in th e 1 6 th cen tu ry , A m erican In d ian s in w h at is n o w th e U n ited S tates w ere su b o rd in ated m ilitarily , cu ltu rally , an d eco n o m ically b y th e d escen d an ts o f th e E u ro p ean settlers. P rev ailin g attitu d es to w ard N ativ es am o n g early w h ite settlers w ere a m ix tu re o f co n tem p t an d fear; o n e o f A m erica’s sem in al d o cu m en ts, th e D eclaratio n o f In d ep en d en ce, refers to “m erciless In d ian sav ag es” b en t o n th e “th e u n d istin g u ish ed d estru ctio n o f all ag es, sex es, an d co n d itio n s.” C o n sisten t w ith th e v iew th at N ativ es w ere sav ag es, m an y A m erican In d ian s w ere n o t reco g n ized as U .S . citizen s u n til th e 2 0 th cen tu ry . F ro m th e early 1 9 th cen tu ry — w h en th e U .S . m ilitary b eg an fo rcib ly relo catin g N ativ e trib es to an area k n o w n as “In d ian T errito ry ,” w est o f th e M ississip p i R iv er— th ro u g h th e In d ian W ars o f th e 1 9 th an d early 2 0 th cen tu ries, th e fed eral g o v ern m en t ten d ed to treat N ativ es eith er as fo reig n ers w h o w ere p o ten tially en em ies, o r as u n civ ilized d ep en d en ts in cap ab le o f m an ag in g th eir o w n affairs. T h e g o v ern m en t’s p o licy , d u rin g th at tim e, o f restrictin g N ativ e A m erican s to sp ecific p arcels o f lan d k n o w n as reserv atio n s h ad th e effect o f sh arp ly lim itin g th e eco n o m ic o p p o rtu n ities av ailab le to N ativ es. (W ilso n , 2 0 0 0 ) A t th e sam e tim e, m isg u id ed ed u catio n al p o licies an d th e lack o f q u ality sch o o ls led to a d istru st o f p u b lic ed u catio n am o n g m an y N ativ es an d lo w lev els o f ed u catio n al attain m en t, w h ich in tu rn fu rth er lim ited eco n o m ic o p p o rtu n ity . (G iag o , 2 0 0 6 ) T h e im p act o f th ese p o licies co n tin u es to b e felt. In th e 2 1 st cen tu ry , N ativ es en jo y th e sam e p an o p ly o f leg a l rig h ts as o th er citizen s, an d fo u ro ffiv e (7 8 % ) liv e o u tsid e a reserv atio n . (O ffice o f M in o rity H ealth , 2 0 1 6 ) B u t N ativ es still ran k sig n ifican tly b elo w th e n atio n al av erag e in m an y k ey so cio eco n o m ic in d icato rs, in clu d in g h o u seh o ld in co m e, em p lo y m en t, ed u catio n al attain m en t, an d life ex p ectan cy . (U .S . C en su s B u reau , 2 0 1 2 ; In d ian H ealth S erv ice, 2 0 1 6 ) T h e h isto ry o f N ativ e A m erican s an d A lask a N ativ es clearly illu strates th at secu rin g leg al rig h ts— b y itself, a lo n g an d d ifficu lt stru g g le fo r N ativ es— is n o g u aran tee o f eco n o m ic lib erty o r su ccess. In th is th em e, w e w ill lo o k at tw o in stan ces w h ere th e rig h ts o f N ativ es cam e in to co n flict w ith th e eco n o m ic in terests o f n o n N ativ es, w ith d ifferin g resu lts. In th e 1 8 3 0 s, th e d em an d s o f w h ite settlers led to th e fo rced relo catio n o f th o u san d s o f C h ero k ee fro m th e so u th east U n ited S tates to lan d s w est o f th e M ississip p i R iv er, in a trag ic ep iso d e k n o w n as th e T rail o f T ears. In th e 1 9 6 0 s an d 1 9 7 0 s, th e lan d claim s o f th o u san d s o f A lask a N ativ es th reaten ed to d elay o r p rev en t co n stru ctio n o f th e T ran sA lask a O il P ip elin e; C o n g ress resp o n d ed b y p assin g leg islatio n th at g av e th e N ativ es m o re th an 4 0 m illio n acres o f lan d to settle th eir claim s an d set u p a sy stem o f N ativ e co rp o ratio n s th at h as h elp ed to sp u r eco n o m ic d ev elo p m en t an d red u ce p o v erty in th e N ativ e co m m u n ity . W e w ill u se th ese case stu d ies to illu strate th e co n cep t o f h isto rical co m p lex ity an d to h elp y o u u n d erstan d th e im p act th at h isto rical th in k in g can h av e o n y o u r o w n life an d career. L e a r n in g O b je c tiv e s In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u w ill: R ev iew th e h isto rical co n tex t b eh in d N ativ e A m erican s’ stru g g le fo r civ il rig h ts an d eco n o m ic o p p o rtu n ity , th e co re co n cep t o f th is th em e A p p ly d ifferen t h isto rical len ses to d ev elo p a m o re co m p lex u n d erstan d in g o f a h isto rical ev en t R e fe re n c e s G iag o , T . (2 0 0 6 ). C h ild ren L eft B eh in d : D a rk L eg a cy o f In d ia n M issio n B o a rd in g S ch o o ls. S an ta F e, N M : C lear L ig h t P u b lish ers. In d ian H ealth S erv ice, U .S . D ep artm en t o f H ealth an d H u m an S erv ices (2 0 1 6 ). D isp arities. R etriev ed fro m w w w .ih s.g o v /n ew sro o m /factsh eets/d isp arities/. N atio n al C en ter fo r E d u catio n S tatistics (2 0 1 2 ). F ast F acts: D eg rees C o n ferred b y S ex an d R ace. R etriev ed fro m h ttp s://n ces.ed .g o v /fastfacts/d isp lay .asp ?id = 7 2 O ffice o f M in o rity H ealth , U .S . D ep artm en t o f H ealth an d H u m an S erv ices (2 0 1 6 ). P ro file: A m erican In d ian /A lask a N ativ e. R etriev ed fro m m in o rity h ealth .h h s.g o v /o m h /b ro w se.asp x ?lv l= 3 & lv lid = 6 2 . U .S . C en su s B u reau (2 0 1 3 ). P o v erty R ates fo r S elected D etailed R ace an d H isp an ic G ro u p s b y S tate an d P lace: 2 0 0 7 2 0 1 1 . R etriev ed fro m w w w .cen su s.g o v /lib rary /p u b licatio n s/2 0 1 3 /acs/acsb r1 1 1 7 .h tm l. W ilso n , J. (2 0 0 0 ). T h e E a rth S h a ll W eep : A H isto ry o f N a tive A m erica . N ew Y o rk : G ro v e P ress. N a t iv e s a n d t h e L a n d A cco rd in g to th e U .S . C en su s B u reau , ab o u t 2 .9 m illio n p eo p le id en tified th em selv es as N ativ e A m erican s o r A lask a N ativ es in th e last fed eral cen su s. (A n o th er 1 4 0 ,0 0 0 id en tified th em selv es as N ativ e H aw aiian s, b u t th is g ro u p is n o t co u n ted as p art o f th e n atio n ‘s N ativ e p o p u latio n .) C o m b in ed w ith th e n u m b er o f p eo p le w h o claim N ativ e h eritag e in ad d itio n to so m e o th er racial o r eth n ic b ack g ro u n d , ab o u t 5 .2 m illio n p eo p le can b e co n sid ered N ativ es. (N o rris, et a l, 2 0 1 2 ) T h ere are cu rren tly 5 6 6 N ativ e trib es th at are reco g n ized b y th e fed eral g o v ern m en t; th is fig u re in clu d es ro u g h ly 2 3 0 trib es o f A lask a N ativ es. (N atio n al C o n g ress o f A m erican In d ian s, 2 0 1 6 ) N ativ e A m erican s an d A lask a N ativ es are b eliev ed to b e d escen d ed fro m A sian s w h o cam e to A lask a fro m S ib eria ro u g h ly 1 2 ,0 0 0 y ears ag o , trav elin g acro ss a lan d b rid g e th at trav ersed w h at is n o w th e B erin g S trait. (W an g , et a l, 2 0 0 7 ) T h is im ag e sh o w s th e sh rin k in g o f th e B erin g lan d b rid g e o v er th e last 2 1 ,0 0 0 y ears. (v isit th e o n lin e learn in g reso u rce fo r an an im ated v ersio n o f th is im ag e) (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) B erin g S trait. (W an g , et a l, 2 0 0 7 ) E stim ates o f th e N ativ e p o p u latio n in N o rth A m erica at th e tim e o f C o lu m b u s’s first v o y ag e ran g e fro m a lo w o f 2 .1 m illio n to a h ig h o f 1 8 m illio n . F o llo w in g th e arriv al o f th e E u ro p ean s, h o w ev er, N ativ e p o p u latio n s w ere d ecim ated b y d iseases fro m E u ro p e— in clu d in g sm allp o x , ty p h u s, m easles, an d in flu en za— fo r w h ich th e N ativ es h ad n o n atu ral im m u n ity . (T h o rn to n , 1 9 9 0 ) R elatio n s b etw een N ativ es an d E u ro p ean settlers d u rin g th e C o lo n ial P erio d — th at is, fro m th e early 1 7 th cen tu ry th ro u g h th e A m erican R ev o lu tio n — w ere m ix ed . S o m e trib es trad ed w ith th e settlers an d co ex isted p eacefu lly w ith th em ; o th ers fo rcefu lly resisted attem p ts b y th e E u ro p ean s to en cro ach o n th eir territo ry . W h ile m an y h isto ry tex ts fo cu s o n co n flicts b etw een N ativ es an d th e E n g lish — in clu d in g th e P o w h atan W ars in V irg in ia an d K in g P h ilip ‘s W ar in M assach u setts— th ere w as also co n sid erab le co n flict in th e S p an ish h eld S o u th w est; in 1 6 8 0 , P o p é’s R eb ellio n , an u p risin g b y P u eb lo N ativ es, d ro v e th e S p an ish o u t o f N ew M ex ico fo r a d o zen y ears. (R iley , 1 9 9 5 ) S o m e o f th ese co n flicts aro se fro m attem p ts to “C h ristian ize” o r “civ ilize” th e N ativ es; o th ers, su ch as th e F ren ch an d In d ian W ar, fo u n d so m e N ativ e trib es fo rm in g allian ces w ith o n e g ro u p o f E u ro p ean settlers ag ain st an o th er. B u t arg u ab ly th e m o st freq u en t so u rce o f co n flict w as la n d . T rad itio n al N ativ e attitu d es to w ard lan d w ere sig n ifican tly d ifferen t fro m th o se th at ch aracterize A m erican so ciety to d ay . In N ativ e cu ltu re, lan d w as seen as a so u rce o f life; it w as so m eth in g to b e sh ared co m m u n ally , n o t o w n ed b y an y in d iv id u al. W h ile w e can ‘t g en eralize ab o u t th e ex p ectatio n s an d u n d erstan d in g o f a ll E u ro p ean settlers, it is clear th at m an y o f th em saw lan d as a co m m o d ity th at co u ld b e b o u g h t an d so ld ; th ey rev ered th e id ea o f p riv ate p ro p erty , a co n cep t th at d id n o t ev en ex ist in N ativ e cu ltu re. (C ro n o n , 2 0 0 3 ) T h is fu n d am en tal d isju n ctio n o f b eliefs p laced settlers an d N ativ es at o d d s fro m th e earliest co lo n ial d ay s. C o n flicts g rew m o re acu te after th e A m erican R ev o lu tio n , w h en th e n ew A m erican g o v ern m en t ad o p ted a series o f p o licies aim ed at d isp lacin g N ativ es to m ak e ro o m fo r a rap id ly ex p an d in g n atio n al p o p u latio n . In th e late 1 8 th an d early 1 9 th cen tu ry , su d d en ly , N ativ es w ere n o t arg u in g ab o u t lan d w ith iso lated g ro u p s o f settlers o r ex p lo rers, o r try in g to p lay o ff th e B ritish ag ain st th e F ren ch ; th ey w ere co n fro n ted b y a u n ified n atio n al g o v ern m en t th at w as p u rsu in g a co n sisten t p o licy an d w h ich h ad th e p o ten tial to b ack u p th at p o licy w ith m ilitary fo rce. C o n flicts o v er lan d o ccu rred o n ev ery v irtu ally all o f th e n ew n atio n ‘s fro n tiers. O n e area th at attracted a g reat d eal o f atten tio n in th e early 1 9 th cen tu ry , b o th fro m p ro sp ectiv e settlers an d fro m o fficials in W ash in g to n , w as th e S o u th east U n ited S tates— G eo rg ia, F lo rid a, A lab am a, an d M ississip p i. T h is in clu d ed th e trib al lan d s o f th e [?]F iv e C iv ilized T rib es[/?]— w h ich d u rin g th e co lo n ial era h ad en jo y ed relativ ely p eacefu l relatio n s w ith E u ro p ean settlers— as w ell as sev eral o th er trib es. (W illiam s, 1 9 7 9 ) T h e S o u th east w as d esirab le to settlers b ecau se th e lan d w as fertile fo r farm in g , w ith co n d itio n s id eal fo r th e p ro d u ctio n o f co tto n . (T h e o p en in g o f th e S o u th east to co tto n farm in g b y n o n N ativ e settlers later p ro v ed to b e a m ajo r facto r in th e d ram atic in crease in co tto n p ro d u ctio n in th e S o u th b etw een 1 8 3 0 an d 1 8 5 0 .) T h e d isco v ery o f g o ld in G eo rg ia in 1 8 2 9 o n ly in creased th e lan d ‘s v alu e, in th e ey es o f p ro sp ectiv e w h ite settlers. (G reg g , 2 0 0 9 ) A n 1 8 3 4 p o rtrait o f P eter P itch ly n n , later ch ief o f th e C h o ctaw N atio n . (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) B etsy B ro w n S tep h en s, p ictu red h ere in 1 9 0 3 , su rv iv ed th e T rail o f T ears as a teen ag er. (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) P ressu re to acq u ire th ese trib al lan d s resu lted in p assag e o f th e In d ian R em o v al A ct in 1 8 3 0 , w h ich au th o rized th e P resid en t to n eg o tiate w ith N ativ e trib es ab o u t th eir rem o v al— essen tially to o ffer th em fed eral lan d w est o f th e M ississip p i R iv er in retu rn fo r th eir trib al h o m elan d s east o f th e M ississip p i. P resid en t A n d rew Jack so n , a fo rcefu l p ro p o n en t o f su ch lan d trad es, sig n ed th e In d ian R em o v al A ct in to law an d b eg an p ressu rin g th e trib es to sig n lan d sw ap treaties. S o m e g ro u p s o f N ativ es w en t m o re w illin g ly th an o th ers. T h e C h o c ta w In S ep tem b er 1 8 3 0 , rep resen tativ es o f th e C h o ctaw N atio n sig n ed th e T reaty o f D an cin g R ab b it C reek , ced in g th eir trib al lan d s in M ississip p i in retu rn fo r a sim ilar am o u n t o f lan d in In d ian T errito ry , in w h at is n o w eastern O k lah o m a. A b o u t 1 5 ,0 0 0 C h o ctaw m o v ed w est; an o th er 5 0 0 0 o r so rem ain ed in M ississip p i an d b ecam e U .S . citizen s, w ith each fam ily receiv in g a relativ ely sm all, 6 4 0 acre p arcel o f lan d . (S atz, 1 9 8 6 ) T h e C h e r o k e e T h e C h ero k ee N atio n , lo cated p rim arily in G eo rg ia, N o rth C aro lin a, an d T en n essee, resisted rem o v al m o re v ig o ro u sly . C h ero k ee lead ers, facin g p ressu re n o t ju st fro m th e fed eral g o v ern m en t b u t also th e state g o v ern m en t o f G eo rg ia, resp o n d ed w ith law su its as w ell as p o litical lo b b y in g . B u t d iv isio n s w ith in th e C h ero k ee lead ersh ip u n d erm in ed th eir resistan ce; o n e factio n , w h ich saw rem o v al as in ev itab le, n eg o tiated th e T reaty o f N ew E ch o ta (1 8 3 5 ), w h ich w as q u ick ly ren o u n ced b y lead ers o f th e o th er factio n . T h e fed eral g o v ern m en t reco g n ized th e treaty as v alid , h o w ev er, an d in 1 8 3 8 sen t fed eral tro o p s to b eg in th e fo rced relo catio n o f th e C h ero k ee to In d ian C o u n try . A n estim ated 4 ,0 0 0 C h ero k ee d ied o n th e th o u san d m ile trek w est. (P ru ch a, 1 9 8 4 ) M ican o p y w as th e p rin cip al ch ief o f th e S em in o le d u rin g th e S eco n d S em in o le W ar. (P D ) (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) T h e S e m in o le In F lo rid a, th e S em in o le— w h o h ad alread y sig n ed a treaty g iv in g u p th eir lan d in retu rn fo r a reserv atio n in th e cen tral p art o f w h at w as th en th e F lo rid a T errito ry — fo rcefu lly resisted effo rts to relo cate th em a seco n d tim e, to In d ian T errito ry . T h e resu ltin g S eco n d S em in o le W ar lasted fro m 1 8 3 5 to 1 8 4 2 an d w as arg u ab ly th e b lo o d iest o f th e 1 9 th cen tu ry “In d ian w ars.” (L an caster, 1 9 9 4 ) B u t in th e en d , th e v ast m ajo rity o f S em in o les w ere fo rcib ly relo cated to th e w est; W ash in g to n h ad p rev ailed , an d th e S o u th eastern U n ited S tates w as n o lo n g er N ativ e lan d . R e fe re n c e s C ro n o n , W . (2 0 0 3 ). C h a n g es in th e L a n d : In d ia n s, C o lo n ists, a n d th e E co lo g y o f C o lo n ia l N ew E n g la n d rev . ed . N ew Y o rk : H ill an d W an g . G reg g , M . (2 0 0 9 ). “S h o rtch an g ed : U n co v erin g th e V alu e o f P reR em o v al C h ero k ee P ro p erty .” T h e C h ro n icles o f O kla h o m a , V o l. 8 7 (F all 2 0 0 9 ), 3 2 0 3 3 5 . L an caster, J. (1 9 9 4 ). R em o va l A ftersh o ck: T h e S em in o les’ S tru g g les to S u rvive in th e W est, 1 8 3 6 1 8 6 6 . K n o x v ille, T N : U n iv ersity o f T en n essee P ress. N atio n al C o n g ress o f A m erican In d ian s (2 0 1 6 ). A n In tro d u ctio n to In d ian N atio n s in th e U n ited S tates. R etriev ed fro m w w w .n cai.o rg /ab o u ttrib es/in d ian s_ 1 0 1 .p d f, Ju n e 8 , 2 0 1 6 . N o rris, T . et a l (2 0 1 2 ). 2 0 1 0 C en su s B riefs. R etriev ed fro m w w w .cen su s.g o v /h isto ry /p d f/c2 0 1 0 b r1 0 .p d f P ru ch a, F . (1 9 8 4 ). T h e G rea t F a th er: T h e U n ited S ta tes G o vern m en t a n d th e A m erica n In d ia n s. L in co ln , N E : U n iv ersity o f N eb rask a P ress. R iley , C . (1 9 9 5 ). R io d el N o rte: P eo p le o f th e U p p er R io G ra n d e fro m E a rliest T im es to th e P u eb lo R evo lt. S alt L ak e C ity : U n iv ersity o f U tah P ress. S atz, R . (1 9 8 6 ). “T h e M ississip p i C h o ctaw : F ro m th e R em o v al T reaty to th e F ed eral A g en cy “. In W ells an d T u b b y , ed . A fter R em o va l, T h e C h o cta w in M ississip p i. Jack so n , M S : U n iv ersity P ress o f M ississip p i. T h o rn to n , R u ssell (1 9 9 0 ). A m erica n In d ia n H o lo ca u st a n d S u rviva l: A P o p u la tio n H isto ry S in ce 1 4 9 2 . N o rm an , O K : U n iv ersity o f O k lah o m a P ress. W an g , S . et a l (2 0 0 7 ). “G en etic V ariatio n an d P o p u latio n S tru ctu re in N ativ e A m erican s”. P L o S G en etics. V o l. 3 , N o . 1 1 , 1 8 5 . W illiam s, W . (1 9 7 9 ). “S o u th eastern In d ian s b efo re R em o v al, P reh isto ry , C o n tact, D eclin e” in S o u th ea stern In d ia n s: S in ce th e R em o va l E ra . A th en s, G A : U n iv ersity o f G eo rg ia P ress. T h e m e : T h in k in g A b o u t H is t o r y | L e a r n in g B lo c k 7 -2 : H is t o r ic a l C o m p le x it y C o m p le x it y M a d e S im p le T h e p ast w as m essy , an d th in g s w ere n ev er as sim p le as w e’d lik e to th in k . T h at’s th e u n co m p licated tru th b eh in d th e co n cep t o f h isto rical co m p lex ity . C o m p lex ity is th e last o f th e “5 C ‘s o f H isto rical T h in k in g ” th at w e first en co u n tered b ack in T h em e: A p p ro ach es to H isto ry : C h an g e, C o n tex t, C au sality , C o n tin g en cy , an d C o m p lex ity . C o m p lex ity m ean s th at h isto rical ev en ts rarely h av e sim p le ex p lan atio n s. It also m ean s th at it’s to o sim p listic to d escrib e a h isto rical ev en t in term s o f ab so lu tes— to say th at so m eth in g is a lw a ys tru e, o r th at n o o n e ever esp o u sed a certain p o sitio n . A b so lu tes are fo r p eo p le w h o see th e w o rld in b lack an d w h ite; h isto rian s rev el in all th e sh ad es o f g rey th at co m e w ith th e stu d y o f co m p lex ev en ts. In th is learn in g b lo ck , w e’ll lo o k at so m e o f th e facto rs th at co n trib u te to h isto rical co m p lex ity — an d w e’ll also see h o w o n e h isto rical ev en t, fam iliar to all, w as actu ally m u ch m o re co m p licated th an m an y o f u s m ay th in k . L e a r n in g O b je c tiv e s In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u w ill: A n aly ze d ifferen t facto rs th at co n trib u te to h isto rical co m p lex ity A p p ly d ifferen t h isto rical len ses to p ro d u ce a m o re co m p lex p ictu re o f a h isto rical ev en t F a c t o r s T h a t L e a d t o C o m p le x it y O n e o f th e p rin cip al g o als o f teach in g h isto ry is “to p rep are stu d en ts to to lerate co m p lex ity , to ad ap t to n ew situ atio n s, an d to resist th e first an sw er th at co m es to m in d .” (W in eb u rg , 2 0 1 0 ) O k ay , so h isto ry is co m p lex — b u t w h y? O n e reaso n is th at th ere are so m an y d ifferen t h isto rical len ses th at can b e ap p lied to an y g iv en h isto rical ev en t. A h isto rian w h o ‘s d o in g research (as y o u are d o in g fo r th is co u rse) w ill ty p ically lo o k at a h isto rical ev en t th ro u g h o n e len s. L et’s say y o u ‘re research in g th e F ren ch an d In d ian W ar; y o u m ig h t u se th e len s o f m ilitary h isto ry to lo o k at th e relativ e sig n ifican ce o f so m e k ey b attles. F air en o u g h , b u t th e F ren ch an d In d ian W ar w as m o re th an ju st a series o f b attles. It w as also an o u tg ro w th o f th e E u ro p ean w id e co n flict k n o w n as th e S ev en Y ears’ W ar, w h ich y o u co u ld lo o k at th ro u g h th e len s o f d ip lo m atic h isto ry . It w as sp ark ed b y co n flicts b etw een F ren ch an d B ritish trad ers in th e O h io V alley , w h ich y o u co u ld lo o k at th ro u g h th e len s o f eco n o m ic h isto ry . T h e allian ce b etw een th e F ren ch an d In d ian s w as an o u tg ro w th o f th e ex cep tio n ally clo se relatio n s th at th e tw o g ro u p s h ad sh ared fro m th e earliest co lo n ial d ay s— far clo ser th an th e relatio n s b etw een N ativ es an d th e B ritish — w h ich y o u co u ld lo o k at th ro u g h th e len s o f so cial h isto ry . F in ally , it resu lted in th e tak eo v er o f h eav ily C ath o lic F ren ch Q u eb ec b y th e P ro testan t B ritish , w h o g u aran teed F ren ch C ath o lics in Q u eb ec th e rig h t to p ractice th eir faith — an issu e y o u co u ld lo o k at th ro u g h th e len s o f relig io u s h isto ry . T h e p o in t is th at to g et a co m p lete p ictu re o f an y h isto rical ev en t, y o u ‘v e g o t to lo o k at it th ro u g h m u ltip le len ses. A n d th at n ecessarily m ak es th e p ictu re m o re co m p lex an d m o re d ifficu lt to d escrib e in sim p le term s. H isto ry can also raise q u estio n s o f m o ral co m p lex ity . T h at is to say , w h en y o u ‘re stu d y in g h isto ry it’s n o t alw ay s easy to tell th e “g o o d g u y s” fro m th e “b ad g u y s,” b ecau se m o st p eo p le are n eith er w h o lly g o o d n o r w h o lly ev il. A n d so m etim es, try in g to fig u re o u t w h o th e g o o d g u y s are (o r w h eth er th ere are an y g o o d g u y s at all) can o n ly d istract y o u fro m th e task o f h isto rical an aly sis. C o m p lex ity also arises b ecau se o f th e n atu re o f cau sality . H isto rical ev en ts alm o st alw ay s h av e m o re th an o n ce cau se, an d th o se cau ses m ay b e eith er p ro x im ate o r u ltim ate; so m e m ay b e n ecessary w h ile o th ers are co n trib u to ry . A scrib in g a h isto rical ev en t to ju st o n e cau se is a sim p listic ap p ro ach th at is u su ally m istak en . H isto rical co m p lex ity is also a fu n ctio n o f co n tin g en cy . Ju st as ev en ts alm o st alw ay s h av e m u ltip le cau ses, th ey also h av e m u ltip le co n seq u en ces; each h isto rical ev en t sets in m o tio n m an y o th er ev en ts, w h ich in tu rn cau se still m o re ev en ts to tak e p lace. D escrib in g a h isto rical ev en t in term s o f ju st o n e o f its o u tco m es d o es n o t p resen t th e fu ll p ictu re o f its h isto rical sig n ifican ce. R e fe re n c e s W in eb u rg , S . (2 0 1 0 ). H isto rical T h in k in g : M em o rizin g F acts an d S tu ff? T P S Q u a rterly, V o l. 3 , N o . 1 (W in ter, 2 0 1 0 ). R etriev ed fro m w w w .lo c.g o v /teach ers/tp s/q u arterly /h isto rical_ th in k in g /article.h tm l. T h e cam p aig n s o f th e F ren ch an d In d ian W ar. (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) A n id ealized v iew o f th e “first T h an k sg iv in g ” (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) T h a n k s g iv in g : A C o m p le x S t o r y M o st A m erican s are fam iliar w ith th e sto ry o f th e first T h an k sg iv in g : h o w a frien d ly N ativ e n am ed S q u an to b efrien d ed th e P ilg rim s at P ly m o u th C o lo n y , tau g h t th em h o w to p lan t co rn , an d in tro d u ced th em to o th er N ativ es. A fter a d ifficu lt w in ter, th e P ilg rim s b ro u g h t in a g o o d h arv est in 1 6 2 1 an d in v ited th e N ativ es to jo in th em in a g reat feast, to th an k G o d fo r th eir su rv iv al. T h at’s th e fam iliar sto ry , an y w ay . H isto rian s arg u e w ith sev eral elem en ts o f th at d escrip tio n — startin g w ith th e id ea th at th is w as th e first T h an k sg iv in g . T h e S p an ish ex p lo rer F ran cisco V azq u ez d e C o ro n ad o an d h is m en h eld a th an k sg iv in g celeb ratio n in w h at is n o w T ex as in 1 5 4 1 ; settlers in M ain e (1 6 0 7 ) an d V irg in ia (1 6 1 0 ) also h eld th an k sg iv in g celeb ratio n s w ell b efo re th e 1 6 2 1 feast at P ly m o u th . (L ib rary o f C o n g ress, 2 0 1 6 ) T h ere’s also th e fact th at th e P ilg rim s d id n ‘t call th eir celeb ratio n a “th an k sg iv in g “; it w as sim p ly a “h arv est feast.” T h e P ilg rim s w ere P u ritan s, m em b ers o f a d issen tin g sect o f E n g lish P ro testan ts w h o so u g h t to “p u rify ,” o r refo rm , th e C h u rch o f E n g lan d . T o th em , th e term “th an k sg iv in g ” h ad a sp ecific m ean in g : it w as a relig io u s h o lid ay , a d ay o f “p ray er an d p io u s h u m iliatio n ,” p ro claim ed to m ark so m e p articu larly au sp icio u s ev en t. T h e first “th an k sg iv in g ” p ro claim ed b y th e P ilg rim s w as in 1 6 2 3 , to m ark th e en d o f a sev ere d ro u g h t. (P lim o th P lan tatio n , 2 0 1 6 ) T h e h o lid ay th at w e call T h an k sg iv in g h ad its ro o ts in th e C iv il W ar. A lth o u g h th e F irst C o n tin en tal C o n g ress d eclared a d ay o f n atio n al th an k sg iv in g d u rin g th e R ev o lu tio n ary W ar, an d P resid en t G eo rg e W ash in g to n d id lik ew ise in 1 7 8 9 , th e h o lid ay d id n o t b eco m e a n atio n al fix tu re u n til 1 8 6 3 . In th at y ear, P resid en t A b rah am L in co ln p ro claim ed n o t o n e b u t tw o d ay s o f T h an k sg iv in g — th e first, in A u g u st, th at celeb rated th e U n io n v icto ry at G etty sb u rg an d th e seco n d , o n th e last T h u rsd ay in N o v em b er, th at estab lish ed th e cu rren t n atio n al trad itio n . (P lim o th P lan tatio n , 2 0 1 6 ) B u t ev en if th e “h arv est feast” at P ly m o u th w asn ‘t th e first T h an k sg iv in g — o r really a T h an k sg iv in g at all, as w e n o w k n o w th e term — th e h isto ry o f th at ev en t, its cau ses an d co n seq u en ces, p ro v id es a m o re co m p lex p ictu re o f relatio n s b etw een N ativ es an d th e early E n g lish settlers in N ew E n g lan d . V id e o T r a n sc r ip t: T h e F ir st T h a n k sg iv in g T h e sto ry o f th e first T h an k sg iv in g feast in 1 6 2 1 is fam iliar to m o st o f u s. A co u p le o f E n g lish sp eak in g n ativ es n am ed S q u an to an d S am o set b efrien d th e P ilg rim s o f P ly m o u th . S q u an to teach es th e P ilg rim s h o w to p lan t co rn an d , after th e h arv est co m es in , th e n ativ es an d th e P ilg rim s jo in to g eth er fo r a feast. It’s a h eartw arm in g sto ry , really , b u t m o st h isto rian s w o u ld ag ree th at it n ev er h ap p en ed th at w ay . F o r starters, it certain ly w asn ‘t th e first. T h ere h ad b een T h an k sg iv in g celeb ratio n s in N o rth A m erica w ell b efo re 1 6 2 1 am o n g S p an ish ex p lo rers an d settlers in T ex as an d F lo rid a an d am o n g th e Jam esto w n settlers in V irg in ia. S eco n d , th e P ilg rim s w eren ‘t m u ch fo r feastin g an d m erry m ak in g . T h ey w ere P u ritan s, an d to th em a T h an k sg iv in g w as p rim arily a d ay o f p ray er an d relig io u s o b serv an ce d eclared to ex p ress th an k s to G o d fo r so m e sp ecific ev en t. W h ile th ere are reco rd s o f m an y d ay s o f T h an k sg iv in g b ein g d eclared in P ly m o u th an d M assach u setts B ay co lo n ies in th e 1 7 th cen tu ry , h ard ly an y o f th em in v o lv ed a feast. A n d th ere’s n o clear reco rd o f o n e in 1 6 2 1 . M an y h isto rian s, in fact, b eliev e th at trad itio n al T h an k sg iv in g sto ry is a h isto rical m y th th at fo r a v ariety o f reaso n s P resid en t A b rah am L in co ln seized o n w h en h e w as try in g to u n ify th e N o rth d u rin g th e C iv il W ar. B u t d o es th at m ean th at S q u an to , S am o set, an d all th e o th er n ativ es, are ju st a fig m en t o f o u r h isto rical im ag in atio n s? H ard ly . T h ese w ere real p eo p le an d th eir sto ry is m o re co m p lex th an m o st A m erican s realize. F o r starters, th ere’s S q u an to . H is n am e in th e W am p an o ag lan g u ag e w as T esq u an tu m , w h ich tran slates ro u g h ly to “d iv in e rag e.” H o w d id h e ju st h ap p en to sp eak E n g lish , an d w h y d id h e ap p ro ach th e P ilg rim s so read ily ? T isq u an tu m w as b o rn in a P atu x et v illag e in w h at is n o w so u th eastern M assach u setts. B u t as a y o u n g m an , h e w as tak en cap tiv e b y E n g lish ex p lo rers an d b ro u g h t b ack to E n g lan d as a slav e. H e learn ed E n g lish an d ev en tu ally g ain ed h is freed o m . C lo se to fifteen y ears later, as a m em b er o f a B ritish ex p ed itio n , h e fin ally retu rn ed to h is h o m elan d , o n ly to d isco v er th at th e P atu x et h ad b een co m p letely w ip ed o u t y ears earlier b y an ep id em ic o f sm allp o x o r a sim ilar d isease o f E u ro p ean o rig in . T isq u an tu m b ecam e frien d ly w ith M assaso it, th e G ran d S ach em o f th e W am p an o ag p eo p le. T h e W am p an o ag , lik e th e P atu x et, h ad b een d ev astated b y d isease, an d th ey w ere b ein g in creasin g ly th reaten ed b y th e N arrag an sett p eo p le o f w h at is n o w R h o d e Islan d . A lo n g w ith an o th er E n g lish sp eak in g n ativ e n am ed S am o set, T isq u an tu m acted as th e in term ed iary b etw een M assaso it an d th e p ilg rim lead ers as th ey fo rg ed a p o litical allian ce. A treaty b etw een th e P ilg rim s an d W am p an o ag , sig n ed o n M arch 2 2 , 1 6 2 1 , co m m itted b o th sid es to a m u tu al d efen se allian ce ag ain st th eir co m m o n en em ies. T h e allian ce b en efited b o th sid es fo r a w h ile, b u t th e lo n g term co n seq u en ces w ere n o t so felicito u s. R elatio n s b etw een th e n ativ es an d th e settlers b eg an to fray as m o re E n g lish m en , b o th P u ritan s an d n o n relig io u s settlers, arriv ed in N ew E n g lan d , tip p in g th e b alan ce o f p o w er in fav o r o f th e E n g lish . M assaso it k ep t th e W am p an o ag n eu tral in th e P eq u o t W ar o f th e late 1 6 3 0 s, in w h ich h u n d red s o f n ativ es w ere k illed an d h u n d red s m o re w ere tak en cap tiv e an d so ld in to slav ery . B u t m an y o th er W am p an o ag w ere o u trag ed b y E n g lish atro cities. A fter M assaso it d ied , h is so n M etaco m et, o ften k n o w n b y h is E n g lish n am e K in g P h ilip , b ecam e lead er o f th e W am p an o ag . In 1 6 7 5 , after th e E n g lish ex ecu ted th ree W am p an o ag fo r th e m u rd er o f an o th er n ativ e, M etaco m et stru ck b ack . In an allian ce w ith th eir fo rm er en em ies, th e N arrag an sett, th e W am p an o ag en jo y ed so m e early b attlefield su ccesses in w h at b ecam e k n o w n as K in g P h ilip ‘s W ar. B u t th e allian ce b etw een th e W am p an o ag an d N arrag an sett so o n u n rav eled , an d b y 1 6 7 6 th e w ar, th e b lo o d iest co n fro n tatio n b etw een n ativ es an d settlers in th e h isto ry o f N ew E n g lan d , w as all b u t o v er. M etaco m et w as k illed in Ju n e o f th at y ear. B y th e en d o f th e w ar, th e n ativ e p o p u latio n o f so u th ern N ew E n g lan d h ad b een red u ced b y h alf, an d th e W am p an o ag an d N arrag an sett h ad v irtu ally ceased to ex ist. In late Ju n e o f 1 6 7 6 , after a series o f m ilitary su ccesses b y th e E n g lish , th e g o v ern in g co u n sel o f th e P u ritan to w n o f C h arlesto w n , M assach u setts, d ecid ed to celeb rate th e co m in g en d o f “th e p resen t w ar w ith th e h eath en n ativ es o f th is lan d .” T o m ark th e o ccasio n , o f co u rse, th ey d eclared a d ay o f T h an k sg iv in g . R e fe re n c e s A P u ritan ‘s M in d (2 0 1 6 ). T h e F irst T h an k sg iv in g . R etriev ed fro m w w w .ap u ritan sm in d .co m /th ech ristian w alk /th e firstth an k sg iv in g /, Ju n e 1 4 , 2 0 1 6 . L ib rary o f C o n g ress (2 0 1 6 ). T h an k sg iv in g T im elin e. R etriev ed fro m w w w .lo c.g o v /teach ers/classro o m m aterials/ p resen tatio n san d activ ities/p resen tatio n s/th an k sg iv in g /tim elin e/1 5 4 1 .h tm l. Ju n e 1 3 , 2 0 1 6 . P lim o th P lan tatio n (2 0 1 6 ). T h an k sg iv in g H isto ry . R etriev ed fro m w w w .p lim o th .o rg /learn /m u ltim ed iareferen ce lib rary /read articlesan d w ritin g s/th an k sg iv in g h isto ry . Ju n e 1 3 , 2 0 1 6 . T h e m e : T h in k in g A b o u t H is t o r y | L e a r n in g B lo c k 7 -3 : P u t t in g It A ll T o g e t h e r In T h em e: A n aly zin g H isto ry , y o u learn ed ab o u t th e d ifferen t w ay s y o u can in clu d e ev id en ce in y o u r essay to su p p o rt y o u r arg u m en t. A n h isto rical research p ap er req u ires in fo rm atio n fro m d ifferen t so u rces to su p p o rt y o u r th esis, b u t y o u n eed to m ak e su re th at m o st o f th e p ap er is in y o u r o w n w o rd s. If y o u rely to o h eav ily o n y o u r ev id en ce, y o u r v o ice an d y o u r arg u m en t w ill g et lo st in o th ers’ w o rd s. U n d erstan d in g h o w to u se an d in co rp o rate ev id en ce w ill b e h elp fu l in o th er h isto ry co u rses an d fu tu re classes y o u tak e at S N H U . K n o w in g h o w to su p p o rt an arg u m en t effectiv ely is also v alu ab le in th e real w o rld . Y o u w ill su b m it th e first d raft o f y o u r essay at th e en d o f L earn in g B lo ck 4 . In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u sh o u ld p lan to d ev o te at least o n e to tw o h o u rs to w o rk in g o n y o u r essay . L e a r n in g O b je c tiv e s In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u w ill: In co rp o rate h isto rical ev id en ce to su p p o rt y o u r an aly sis U se a citatio n w izard to en su re y o u h av e accu rately fo rm atted y o u r A P A citatio n s Q u estio n th e w ay y o u r research h as g iv en y o u a m o re co m p lex v iew o f y o u r h isto rical ev en t B e s t P r a c t ic e s W h en w ritin g y o u r h isto rical an aly sis essay , it is n ecessary to in teg rate so u rces in a w ay th at m ak es it clear w h ich th o u g h ts are y o u rs an d w h ich th o u g h ts co m e fro m y o u r so u rces. R em em b er to fo cu s o n y o u r id eas an d arg u m en t an d b e su re n o t to o v eru se so u rce m aterial. E v id en ce is n ecessary to su p p o rt y o u r th esis statem en t, b u t y o u r en tire p ap er sh o u ld n o t b e so m eo n e else’s w o rd s. W h en y o u u se o th er p eo p le’s w o rd s o r id eas, it’s essen tial th at y o u cite y o u r so u rces. F ailu re to d o so co u ld leav e y o u o p en to an accu satio n o f p lag iarism , w h ich is th e u se o f so m eo n e else’s w o rd s o r id eas w ith o u t ack n o w led g in g th at p erso n ‘s au th o rsh ip . P lag iarism d o esn ‘t h av e to in v o lv e w o rd fo rw o rd co p y in g fro m an o th er au th o r; sim p ly u sin g sim ilar id eas an d p h rases, w ith o u t attrib u tio n , is en o u g h to lan d y o u in d eep tro u b le. T h e b est w ay to av o id th at k in d o f p ro b lem is to m ak e su re th at all o f y o u r so u rces are p ro p erly cited . T h ere are so m e ru les y o u can fo llo w to m ak e su re th at y o u in teg rate so u rces in to y o u r w ritin g in a w ay th at h elp s y o u r au d ien ce u n d erstan d h o w each so u rce su p p o rts y o u r p o in t. C ite o fte n N o t ev ery sen ten ce in a p ap er n eed s to h av e a citatio n . It is o n ly n ecessary to cite o ften en o u g h to m ak e clear b ey o n d d o u b t w h ere y o u r in fo rm atio n is co m in g fro m . If th e first sen ten ce o f a p arag rap h cites G o n zalez an d D u tt, y o u w o u ld n ‘t n eed to cite th e v ery n ex t sen ten ce; citatio n s sh o u ld b e p laced reg u larly th ro u g h o u t p arag rap h s, h o w ev er. In ad d itio n , y o u w o u ld n eed a citatio n n ear th e en d o f th e p arag rap h an d at th e b eg in n in g o f th e n ex t p arag rap h . E v en if G o n zalez an d D u tt are m en tio n ed b y n am e later in th at p arag rap h , th e y ear d o es n o t n eed to b e in clu d ed b ecau se th e so u rce is alread y clear. If an o th er so u rce is cited b etw een tw o referen ces to G o n zalez an d D u tt, b o th G o n zalez an d D u tt m en tio n s n eed to in clu d e th e y ear, w h eth er in p aren th etical citatio n s o r b len d ed in to th e tex t. In th at ex am p le, th e C lark stu d y in terv en es b etw een th e tw o m en tio n s o f G o n zalez an d D u tt’s w o rk , so th e read er n eed s to b e rem in d ed w h ich G o n zalez an d D u tt stu d y is m ean t. F o u r p a r ts A P A fo rm at req u ires fo u r p arts to a citatio n : 1 ) an in tro d u cto ry p h rase, 2 ) th e p arap h rase o r q u o tatio n u sed as ev id en ce, 3 ) an in tex t referen ce, an d 4 ) a referen ce p ag e citatio n . Y o u w ill learn m o re ab o u t th e sp ecifics o f A P A sty le citatio n s at p a g e 2 o f th is learn in g b lo ck . In th e ex am p les b elo w , th e in tro d u ctio n is y ello w , th e p arap h rase o r q u o tatio n u sed as ev id en ce is p in k , an d th e in tex t referen ce is b lu e. T h e referen ce citatio n fo llo w s. G o n zalez an d D u tt’s (2 0 1 0 ) research o n d ecisio n m ak in g is p art o f a tu rn to w ard n ew m o d els. In th at research , th ey fo u n d th at o ld m o d els are in su fficien t fo r real p ro g ress in th e field . It w as also m ad e clear th at . . . G o n zalez an d D u tt’s (2 0 1 0 ) research o n d ecisio n m ak in g is p art o f a tu rn to w ard n ew m o d els. C lark (2 0 0 9 ), h o w ev er, tak es a d ifferen t tack . G o n zalez an d D u tt (2 0 1 0 ) arg u e th at . . . A cco rd in g to A llen (2 0 0 7 ), th im ero sal is a p reserv ativ e th at h elp ed k eep v accin es asep tic an d co n tain s m ercu ry — 4 9 .5 % b y w eig h t. R eferen ces A llen , A . (2 0 0 7 ). V a ccin e: T h e co n tro versia l sto ry o f m ed icin e’s g rea test lifesa ver. N ew Y o rk , N Y : W . W . N o rto n & C o m p an y , In c. T h e list o f in tro d u cto ry w o rd s b elo w w ill h elp y o u in teg rate y o u r q u o tatio n s an d p arap h rases in to y o u r sen ten ces. P r o v id e c o n te x t C reatin g in tex t referen ces isn ‘t ju st a m atter o f fo rm attin g y o u r p aren th etical referen ces co rrectly — th o u g h th at’s certain ly a co n cern . W h en in sertin g an in tex t referen ce, y o u n eed to g iv e y o u r read er en o u g h co n tex t so th at h e o r sh e u n d erstan d s w h eth er y o u are q u o tin g o r p arap h rasin g w o rd s o r id eas. R ead ers also n eed to u n d erstan d w h y y o u are citin g an o th er au th o r: A re y o u g iv in g v o ice to a co u n terarg u m en t? O r are y o u p ro v id in g ev id en ce fo r a m ajo r p o in t? S ig n al to y o u r read er w h y y o u are citin g b y u sin g in tro d u cto ry p h rases, su ch as th e o n e h ig h lig h ted in th e ex cerp t b elo w : G alan ti (2 0 0 4 ) asserts, “In so m e cu ltu res, p art o f th e ‘jo b ‘ o f th e fam ily is to m ak e su re th at th e n u rses are sp en d in g en o u g h tim e carin g fo r th eir lo v ed o n e” (p . 8 7 ). R eferen ces G alan te, G . A . (2 0 0 4 ). C a rin g fo r p a tien ts fro m d ifferen t cu ltu res. P h ilad elp h ia, P A : U n iv ersity o f P en n sy lv an ia P ress. I n tr o d u c to r y w o r d s ack n o w led g es co n clu d es elu cid ates o ffers ad m its co n ten d s ex p resses p resen ts ad v ises criticizes illu strates refu tes ag rees d em o n strates im p lies rejects arg u es d escrib es in sists rep lies asserts d isag rees lists rep o rts b eliev es d iscu sses m ain tain s resp o n d s claim s d isp u tes n o tes su g g ests co n ced es em p h asizes o b jects w rites T h e h ig h lig h ted sen ten ce ex p lain s w h y th e referen ce is im p o rtan t— th e w riter o f th is p ap er w an ted h is read ers to k n o w th at su stain ab ility isn ‘t ju st fo r p articu lar in d u stries, an d h e h as su p p o rt fo r th is claim . H e fo llo w s u p th at in tro d u cto ry sen ten ce w ith su p p o rtin g in fo rm atio n fro m th e so u rce. T h e p arap h rased in fo rm atio n is in tro d u ced w ith a statem en t th at su g g ests th at an o th er au th o r w ro te th e id ea o rig in ally . H e th en p ro v id es th e au th o rs’ n am es an d th e y ear o f th e article’s p u b licatio n . A v o id in g D ro p p ed Q u o ta tio n s. T o av o id p lag iarism , y o u ‘ll w an t to m ak e su re th at y o u are u sin g th e fo u r p arts o f a citatio n d escrib ed in th e “F o u r p arts” tab . B u t y o u ‘ll n eed a fifth p art, p laced in b o ld b elo w , to av o id d ro p p ed q u o tatio n s an d to k eep y o u r w ritin g flu id . W h en w riters d o n ‘t p ro v id e an in tro d u cto ry o r co n clu d in g statem en t to in d icate w h y a so u rce is b ro u g h t in to th e co n v ersatio n , w e call th is a d ro p p ed q u o tatio n b ecau se th e q u o tatio n is seem in g ly d ro p p ed in to th e p arag rap h fro m n o w h ere. W h en citin g th e w o rk o f o th ers, y o u n eed to g iv e y o u r read er en o u g h co n tex t so th at h e o r sh e u n d erstan d s w h eth er y o u are q u o tin g o r p arap h rasin g w o rd s o r id eas. R ead ers also n eed to u n d erstan d w h y y o u are citin g an o th er au th o r: A re y o u g iv in g v o ice to a co u n terarg u m en t? O r are y o u p ro v id in g ev id en ce fo r a m ajo r p o in t? B e su re th at ev ery tim e y o u in clu d e a q u o tatio n in y o u r p ap er, y o u h av e all o f th e fo llo w in g p arts: 1 . A n in tro d u cto ry p h ra se th at in clu d es an in tro d u cto ry w o rd , th e n am e o f th e au th o r, th e p u b licatio n d ate, an d p erh ap s th e title o f th e reso u rce. O n su b seq u en t q u o tatio n s fro m th e sam e so u rce, h o w ev er, y o u can p lace th e au th o r’s n am e, th e p u b licatio n d ate, an d th e p ag e n u m b er at th e en d o f th e citatio n . R em em b er th at y o u w ill n eed to p lace a co m m a b etw een th e in tro d u cto ry p h rase an d th e q u o tatio n . 2 . T h e q u o ta tio n , su rro u n d ed b y q u o ta tio n m a rk s. If th e q u o tatio n en d s in an ex clam atio n p o in t o r a q u estio n m ark , p u t th at p u n ctu atio n rig h t b efo re th e clo sin g q u o tatio n m ark . 3 . A n in tex t referen ce w ith th e au th o r’s n am e an d p u b licatio n d ate (if eith er o f th ese w ere n o t in clu d ed in y o u r in tro d u cto ry p h rase) an d th e p ag e n u m b er. P lace a p erio d after th e clo sin g p aren th esis o f th e in tex t referen ce. 4 . A t lea st o n e sen ten ce th a t su m s u p w h y th a t q u o ta tio n w a s so im p o rta n t to y o u r th esis sta tem en t o r th e m a jo r p o in t y o u a re su p p o rtin g in th a t p la ce in th e p a p er. T h is u su ally m ean s th at y o u sh o u ld n o t en d a p arag rap h w ith a q u o tatio n b ecau se y o u w o u ld n o t b e p ro v id in g en o u g h co n tex t fo r w h y th e q u o tatio n is im p o rtan t. 5 . A referen ce p a g e cita tio n . E v ery tim e y o u cite a so u rce, y o u sh o u ld in clu d e th e au th o r’s n am e, th e d ate o f p u b licatio n , an d th e p ag e n u m b er (if y o u are q u o tin g ). T h at w o n ‘t ch an g e. H o w ev er, th e lo catio n in w h ich y o u p ro v id e th is in fo rm atio n w ill ch an g e d ep en d in g o n w h eth er o r n o t y o u w rite th e au th o r’s n am e as p art o f th e sen ten ce. A later p arap h rase o r q u o tatio n b y th e sam e au th o r in th e sam e p arag rap h w o u ld n o t n ecessa rily n eed to reiterate th e au th o r’s n am e to in tro d u ce th e q u o ted o r p arap h rased co n ten t, b u t it w o u ld n eed to in clu d e th e n am e o f th e au th o r, th e p u b licatio n d ate, an d — if y o u are q u o tin g — th e p ag e n u m b er in th e p aren th etical citatio n . T h o u g h so m e b eliev e th at su stain ab ility is th e d o m ain o f in d u stries su ch as farm in g , ed u catio n , o r th e au to m o tiv e in d u stry , th e au th o rs’ rev iew o f research ad d resses th e cu rren t th o u g h ts ab o u t su stain ab ility in m an y in d u stries an d su g g ests th at in ev ery in d u stry , co m p an ies n eed to fo cu s o n th eir im ag e in o rd er to stay co m p etitiv e (B eh eiry , C h o n g , & H ass, 2 0 0 6 ). Y o u w ill n o tice in th e ex cerp t b elo w th at th e au th o r u ses an in tro d u cto ry statem en t to ex p lain w h y th e q u o tatio n is im p o rtan t to h is m ajo r p o in t. A fter read in g th e first sen ten ce, w e k n o w th e q u o tatio n is g o in g to tell u s m o re ab o u t w h y th e au th o rs are in terested in research in g m u ltin atio n al co rp o ratio n s rath er th an g o v ern m en ts o r sm aller b u sin esses. T h e co n clu sio n sen ten ce fu rth er ex p lain s w h y th e q u o tatio n an d p arap h rased co n ten t are im p o rtan t to th e research p ap er as a w h o le. S e n te n c e g r a m m a r R em em b er th at w h en y o u u se a q u o tatio n , y o u m u st still w rite co m p lete sen ten ces. E v ery sen ten ce o f y o u r w ritin g m u st b e g ram m atically co rrect. W h en y o u u se q u o tatio n s, y o u n eed to in co rp o rate th em in to y o u r o w n sen ten ces. E v en if y o u u se o n ly p art o f a sen ten ce fro m y o u r o rig in al so u rce, it is y o u r resp o n sib ility to u se th e co rrect g ram m ar so th at it fits co m fo rtab ly in to y o u r o w n w ritin g . B reak q u o tatio n s in to sm aller p ieces if y o u n eed to an d co m b in e p arap h rases w ith q u o tatio n s. B u t en su re th at y o u d o n ‘t ch an g e th e m ean in g o f th e q u o tatio n b y elim in atin g im p o rtan t w o rd s w h en y o u trim q u o tatio n s d o w n . T h e sen ten ce b elo w co n tain s a q u o tatio n in th e m id d le o f a sen ten ce. P ay sp ecial atten tio n to th e w ay in w h ich th is q u o tatio n is cited . B eh eiry , C h o n g , an d H ass (2 0 0 6 ) ex p lain th eir in terest in fin d in g a b u sin ess case fo r su stain ab ility in sp ecifically m u ltin atio n al co rp o ratio n s: “U n lik e m an y g o v ern m en ts, m u ltin atio n als h av e in terests an d in flu en ce th at g o b ey o n d n atio n al b o rd ers. M an y m u ltin atio n al co rp o ratio n s alread y h av e en v iro n m en tal m an ag em en t sy stem s (E M S s), p o llu tio n red u ctio n , an d en erg y sav in g p ractices in p lace” (p . 3 8 5 ). T h o u g h th e au th o rs ad m it th at co rp o ratio n s h av e n o t so lv ed su stain ab ility issu es y et, th ey su g g est th at co rp o ratio n s w ill ev en tu ally fin d th e n eed to co m p ete o n a b alan ced su stain ab ility m o re co m p ellin g th an th e n eed fo r th e sh o rtterm sav in g s rep resen ted b y th e statu s q u o — w astefu l u se o f reso u rces (B eh eiry , C h o n g , & H ass, 2 0 0 6 ). B eh eiry , C h o n g , an d H ass (2 0 0 6 ) ex p lain th at th eir ex p erim en t su g g ested th at co m p an ies th at w ere m o re co m m itted to all th ree p illars o f su stain ab le b u sin ess p ractices— so cial d ev elo p m en t, en v iro n m en tal su stain ab ility , a n d eco n o m ic d ev elo p m en t— w ere m o re lik ely to see p ro jects co m in g in u n d er b u d g et an d o n sch ed u le. T h is is im p o rtan t, th e R em em b er th at, reg ard less o f th e p u n ctu atio n th at th e in tex t referen ce p reced es, th e clo sin g p aren th esis o f th e citatio n falls b efo re th e clo sin g p u n ctu atio n . N ev er p la ce th e clo sin g p u n ctu a tio n o f th e sen ten ce in sid e th e p a ren th etica l referen ce. M a k in g ch a n g es to q u o ta tio n s. T h is m ay b e su rp risin g , b u t in o rd er to k eep y o u r w ritin g g ram m atically co rrect an d co n cise, y o u can actu ally m ak e ch an g es to q u o ted m aterial. F o r ex am p le, y o u can ch an g e th e first w o rd o f a q u o tatio n to an u p p ercase o r lo w ercase letter so th at th e q u o tatio n b etter fits in to th e g ram m ar o f y o u r o w n sen ten ce. In th e ex am p le b elo w , R ey es actu ally b eg an h er sen ten ce w ith “D ev elo p in g ,” so th e first letter w as cap italized in th e o rig in al. B u t th at d id n ‘t fit in th e g ram m ar o f th e n ew sen ten ce, so th e letter w as m ad e lo w ercase. Y o u can also ch an g e th e p u n ctu a tio n m ark at th e en d o f a q u o tatio n so th at it fits th e g ram m ar o f y o u r o w n sen ten ce: fo r ex am p le, a co m m a can b eco m e a p erio d . D o n ‘t ch an g e th e p u n ctu atio n m ark s, h o w ev er, in an y w ay th at w o u ld ch an g e th e q u o tatio n ‘s m ean in g . Y o u w o u ld n ‘t w an t to in sert a q u estio n m ark w h ere an au th o r w as m ak in g a factu al statem en t, fo r in stan ce. If y o u rem o v e an y th in g fro m th e m id d le o f a q u o tatio n , u se th ree sp aced ellip sis p o in ts ( . . . ) to in d icate th e o m issio n : N ev er rem o v e a citatio n fro m th e m id d le o f a q u o tatio n . F o r ex am p le, if y o u w an t to q u o te th is sen ten ce fro m S h u F en K ao an d B . L u sk ‘s article “A ttitu d es T o w ard s D eath an d D y in g ,” y o u m ay n o t rem o v e th e citatio n o f B en o liel, even if yo u a re rem o vin g m a teria l a ro u n d th e cita tio n : au th o rs claim , b ecau se “th e h isto rical ten d en cy to fo cu s o n en v iro n m en tal su stain ab ility o v eralig n ed S D [su stain ab le d ev elo p m en t] w ith th e g reen m o v em en t an d alien ated th e b u sin ess ex ecu tiv es” (B eh eiry , C h o n g , & H ass, 2 0 0 6 , p . 3 8 4 ). T h e au th o rs arg u e th at th e reaso n m an y co m p an ies are slo w to em b race su stain ab le p ractices is th at th ere is n o relev an t b u sin ess case to p ersu ad e th o se in ch arg e th at su stain ab ility w ill in crease v alu e to sh areh o ld ers. T h e resu lts o f th is ex p erim en t m ay b e u sed to su p p o rt th e id ea th at su stain ab ility can red u ce co sts, w h ich m ig h t en co u rag e b u sin ess o w n ers to ad o p t su stain ab le m an ag em en t p ractices. O n e stu d y fo u n d th at “d ev elo p in g so cial n etw o rk s o n cam p u s co u n teracted iso latio n an d in v isib ility ” (R ey es, 2 0 1 1 , p . 2 5 7 ). “F o r sm all firm s . . . fix ed co sts are o f sp ecial co n cern ” (G erh ard & M ilk o v ich , 1 9 9 0 , p . 6 6 7 ). Y o u m ig h t alter th e q u o tatio n in th is w ay : B u t y o u m ay n o t alter th e q u o tatio n b y rem o v in g th e citatio n an d an y th in g aro u n d it: Y o u d o n o t n eed to ad d so u rces cited w ith in q u o tatio n s fro m so u rces y o u are u sin g to y o u r o w n referen ce list. T o q u o te o r p a r a p h r a se ? In g en eral, p arap h rasin g so u rces w ill k eep y o u r o w n w ritin g fro m b eco m in g ch o p p y an d seem in g ly th ro w n to g eth er. H o w ev er, y o u m ig h t q u o te co n ten t d irectly if y o u feel th at th e au th o r’s o rig in al p h rasin g o ffers a to n e o r a co n cisio n th at y o u w o u ld n o t w an t to d isru p t. T h e p arag rap h b elo w u ses a q u o tatio n th at im p arts a to n e th at u n iq u ely an d p o w erfu lly d escrib es th e ty p e o f p ro jects th at citizen s m ay o b ject to , so th e w riter o f th is p ap er ch o se to k eep th e q u o tatio n in tact b ecau se it o ffers m o re co n cisio n th an h e co u ld rep licate. “T h is b eh av io r m ig h t b e ex p lain ed b y B en o liel (1 9 8 7 – 1 9 8 8 ), in h er rev iew o f th e research literatu re co n cern in g h ealth care p ro v id ers an d d y in g p atien ts, th at th ere is so m e ev id en ce th at av o id an ce o f d y in g p atien ts is a p referred co p in g strateg y fo r n u rses.” “T h is b eh av io r m ig h t b e ex p lain ed b y B en o liel (1 9 8 7 – 1 9 8 8 ) . . . th at th ere is so m e ev id en ce th at av o id an ce o f d y in g p atien ts is a p referred co p in g strateg y fo r n u rses.” “T h is b eh av io r m ig h t b e ex p lain ed b y . . . so m e ev id en ce th at av o id an ce o f d y in g p atien ts is a p referred co p in g strateg y fo r n u rses.” B eh eiry , C h o n g , an d H ass (2 0 0 6 ) su g g est th at “N ew ro ad s in a p ictu resq u e co u n try sid e, refin eries in co astal w etlan d s, an d d am s o n scarce riv er reso u rces are ty p ical p ro jects th at attract fierce d eb ate” (p . 3 8 5 ), b u t th en ack n o w led g e th at m ark et fo rces g en erally are an im p o rtan t d eterm in in g facto r fo r w h ich p ro jects are b u ilt w h ere. A p o rtrait o f th e S h aw n ee ch ief T ecu m seh , after B en so n L o ssin g ‘s en g rav in g . (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) P resid en t A n d rew Jack so n w as a fo rcefu l ad v o cate o f In d ian rem o v al. (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) T h e m e : T h in k in g A b o u t H is t o r y | L e a r n in g B lo c k 7 -4 : T h e T r a il o f T e a r s T h e T r a il o f T e a r s A s w e saw in L earn in g B lo ck 7 1 , th e early 1 9 th cen tu ry saw w id esp read co n flict b etw een N ativ e trib es an d w h ite settlers, an d th e S o u th eastern U n ited S tates w as o n e o f th e m ajo r aren as fo r th is co n flict. A s th e n atio n ‘s p o p u latio n in creased an d settlers b eg an to p u sh w estw ard , th e h u g e stretch es o f N ativ e trib al lan d in G eo rg ia, F lo rid a, A lab am a, an d M ississip p i seem ed a rip e targ et— esp ecially b ecau se th is lan d w as id eal fo r cu ltiv atin g co tto n , an ex trem ely v alu ab le cash cro p . S tartin g w ith T h o m as Jefferso n , A m erican P resid en ts h ad en v isio n ed th at N ativ es liv in g east o f th e M ississip p i R iv er w o u ld h av e to g iv e u p th eir lan d . A s Jefferso n saw it, th o se w h o w an ted to rem ain in th e east co u ld b eco m e citizen s an d receiv e a 6 4 0 acre p lo t o f farm lan d , w h ile th o se w h o w an ted to m ain tain th eir trib al so v ereig n ty co u ld trad e th eir N ativ e lan d s fo r fed eral lan d w est o f th e M ississip p i. (Jefferso n , 1 8 0 3 ) In eith er ev en t, th e N ativ es w o u ld n o t rem ain o n th eir o w n lan d . T h e W ar o f 1 8 1 2 w as a m ajo r tu rn in g p o in t in relatio n s b etw een N ativ es an d A m erican settlers. B efo re th e w ar, th e B ritish h ad u sed th eir m ilitary p resen ce in C an ad a to h elp In d ian trib es in th eir b attles ag ain st en cro ach in g A m erican settlers; th e B ritish h o p ed to estab lish a N ativ e state in th e A m erican N o rth w est th at w o u ld serv e as a b u ffer b etw een C an ad a an d th e U n ited S tates. D u rin g th e W ar o f 1 8 1 2 , th e B ritish fo rm ed an allian ce w ith a co n fed eratio n o f N ativ e n atio n s, led b y th e S h aw n ee ch ief, T ecu m seh ; B ritish so ld iers fo u g h t sid eb y sid e w ith N ativ es in m an y en g ag em en ts b efo re T ecu m seh w as k illed in 1 8 1 3 . T h e T reaty o f G h en t, w h ich en d ed th e w ar, also en d ed an y allian ces b etw een N ativ es an d th e B ritish . In retu rn fo r th e A m erican s’ p led g e to resp ect C an ad a’s b o rd er th e B ritish ab an d o n ed th e id ea o f estab lish in g a N ativ e b u ffer state, an d p ro m ised n o t to arm A m erican N ativ es. (T u rn er, 2 0 0 0 ) W ith o u t th e B ritish as a p o ten tial ally , N ativ es h ad less lev erag e to resist th e effo rts o f w h ite settlers to claim th eir lan d . In 1 8 2 5 , P resid en t Jam es M o n ro e p ro p o sed th e first p lan fo r In d ian rem o v al. U n d er th is p lan , N ativ es liv in g east o f th e M ississip p i w o u ld v o lu n tarily trad e th eir h o m elan d s fo r sim ilarly sized stretch es o f w estern lan d , in A rk an sas T errito ry an d In d ian T errito ry . C o n g ress ap p ro v ed th e p lan an d M o n ro e an d h is su ccesso r, Jo h n Q u in cy A d am s, so u g h t to co n v in ce th e N ativ es to m o v e b y p eacefu l m ean s. A t th e sam e tim e th e state g o v ern m en t o f G eo rg ia, eag er to seize lan d fro m th e C reek an d C h ero k ee, ex erted p o litical p ressu re o n A d am s to n eg o tiate treaties th at w ere fav o rab le to G eo rg ia’s in terests. (P ru ch a, 1 9 9 7 ). In 1 8 2 8 , A n d rew Jack so n , w h o ‘d g ain ed fam e in larg e p art fo r h is m ilitary ex p lo its ag ain st th e C reek an d S em in o le In d ian s, w o n electio n as th e n atio n ‘s sev en th P resid en t. T h e v eteran In d ian fig h ter to o k a m u ch to u g h er lin e th an h is p red ecesso rs, callin g fo r th e rem o v al o f all N ativ es east o f th e M ississip p i. In 1 8 3 0 , C o n g ress p assed th e In d ian R em o v al A ct, w h ich au th o rized Jack so n to n eg o tiate treaties w ith each o f th e In d ian n atio n s, w ith th e g o al o f relo catin g each o n e. (F o rem an , 1 9 3 2 ) A s w e saw in L earn in g B lo ck 7 1 , d ifferen t N ativ e g ro u p s resp o n d ed to th e In d ian R em o v al A ct in d ifferen t w ay s. T h e resp o n se o f th e C h ero k ee w as o n e o f th e m o re co m p lex — an d , u ltim ately , trag ic— o f th o se resp o n ses. T h is learn in g b lo ck lo o k s at th e h isto ry o f th e C h ero k ee R em o v al as an ex am p le o f h isto rical co m p lex ity , an d u ses it to h elp y o u u se h isto rical ev id en ce to d raw co n clu sio n s ab o u t th e n atu re o f h isto rical ev en ts. L e a r n in g O b je c tiv e s In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u w ill: A ssess th e co m p lex ity o f a h isto rical ev en t U se h isto rical ev id en ce to d raw co n clu sio n s ab o u t a h isto rical ev en t R e fe re n c e s F o rem an , G . (1 9 3 2 ). In d ia n R em o va l: T h e E m ig ra tio n o f th e F ive C ivilized T rib es o f In d ia n s. N o rm an , O K : U n iv ersity o f O k lah o m a P ress. Jefferso n , T . (1 8 0 3 ). L etter to W illiam H en ry H arriso n , G o v ern o r o f th e In d ian a T errito ry . R etriev ed fro m w w w .d ig italh isto ry .u h .ed u /activ e_ learn in g /ex p lo ratio n s/in d ian _ rem o v al/jefferso n _ to _ h arriso n .cfm P ru ch a, F . (1 9 9 7 ). A m erica n In d ia n T rea ties: T h e H isto ry o f a P o litica l A n o m a ly. B erk eley , C A : U n iv ersity o f C alifo rn ia P ress. T u rn er, W . (2 0 0 0 ). T h e W a r o f 1 8 1 2 : T h e W a r T h a t B o th S id es W o n . T o ro n to : D u n d u rn P ress. C h e r o k e e R e m o v a l T h e an cestral lan d s o f th e C h ero k ee N atio n in clu d ed p arts o f A lab am a, G eo rg ia, N o rth C aro lin a, an d T en n essee. B u t th e b u lk o f C h ero k ee lan d w as in G eo rg ia, an d it is th ere th at th e sto ry o f th e C h ero k ee R em o v al is cen tered . In 1 8 0 2 , th e fled g lin g fed eral g o v ern m en t m ad e a d eal w ith th e state o f G eo rg ia. In retu rn fo r ced in g its w estern lan d claim s (w h ich w o u ld b eco m e th e states o f A lab am a an d M ississip p i), G eo rg ia receiv ed a p ro m ise th at th e fed eral g o v ern m en t w o u ld n eg o tiate treaties to rem o v e all N ativ es fro m th e state. H ere w e see a clear ex am p le o f th e h isto rical co n cep t o f ch an g e o v er tim e. In th e 2 1 st cen tu ry th e fo rced relo catio n o f an en tire racial o r eth n ic g ro u p w o u ld b e co n sid ered eth n ic clean sin g , a term co in ed in th e 1 9 9 0 s an d leg ally v iew ed as a “crim e ag ain st h u m an ity .” (U .N . G en eral A ssem b ly , 1 9 9 2 ). B u t th is co n cep t d id n o t ev en ex ist in th e 1 8 0 0 s, an d th e fo rced relo catio n o f A m erican N ativ e trib es o ccu rred freq u en tly d u rin g th e 1 9 th cen tu ry . S o m e C h ero k ee d id ag ree to relo cate v o lu n tarily to A rk an sas in th e late 1 8 th an d early 1 9 th cen tu ries; th ese “O ld S ettlers” ev en tu ally estab lish ed th e W estern C h ero k ee N atio n , b u t th e b u lk o f th e C h ero k ee rem ain ed in G eo rg ia. A s p art o f th eir effo rt to rem ain o n th eir an cestral lan d s, th e C h ero k ee— w h o , alo n g w ith th e o th er “C iv ilized T rib es,” h ad ad o p ted m an y asp ects o f E u ro p ean A m erican cu ltu re— stro v e to assim ilate ev en fu rth er. B y th e early 1 9 th cen tu ry , th e C h ero k ee h ad ad o p ted a w ritten lan g u ag e an d a co n stitu tio n m o d eled o n th at o f th e U n ited S tates, an d th ey h ad b u ilt a cap ital city at N ew E ch o ta in G eo rg ia. M an y C h ero k ee m arried w h ite settlers; Jo h n R o ss, th e P rin cip al C h ief o f th e C h ero k ee N atio n fro m 1 8 2 8 to 1 8 6 6 , h ad larg ely S co ttish an cestry an d w as o n ly o n eeig h th C h ero k ee. T h e C h ero k ee trad ed ex ten siv ely T h e G reat S eal o f th e C h ero k ee N atio n . (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) Jo h n R o ss, p rin cip al ch ief o f th e C h ero k ee N atio n . N o te h is E u ro p ean sty le o f d ress, em b lem atic o f th e C h ero k ee’s assim ilatio n . (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) w ith w h ite settlers, an d m an y d ressed in w estern sty le clo th in g ; so m e o f th e w ealth iest C h ero k ee o w n ed to b acco o r co tto n p lan tatio n s as w ell as b lack slav es. N o n eth eless, p ressu re fo r rem o v al in creased as co tto n b ecam e th e d o m in an t cash cro p in th e state, b ecau se th e C h ero k ee’s lan d w as p articu larly w ellsu ited fo r co tto n p ro d u ctio n . (F ite, 1 9 4 9 ) T h e d isco v ery o f g o ld in 1 8 2 9 , an d th e en su in g G eo rg ia G o ld R u sh , o n ly in ten sified th e p ressu re. (W illiam s, 2 0 1 6 ) In 1 8 2 8 , th e state o f G eo rg ia en acted a series o f statu tes th at effectiv ely strip p ed th e C h ero k ee o f th eir rig h ts u n d er state law . R ath er th an reso rt to v io len ce th e C h ero k ee to o k th e state to co u rt; th e trib e ap p eared to b e v in d icated w h en th e S u p rem e C o u rt ru led , in W o rcester v. G eo rg ia (1 8 3 2 ), th at in d iv id u al states can n o t in terfere w ith N ativ es’ trib al so v ereig n ty . B u t G eo rg ia flatly refu sed to co m p ly w ith th e C o u rt’s ru lin g an d P resid en t Jack so n , firm ly co m m itted to h is p o licy o f In d ian rem o v al, refu sed to en fo rce th e C o u rt’s d ecisio n . W h en G eo rg ia co n d o n ed arm ed raid s o n C h ero k ee territo ry an d w en t ah ead w ith a state lo ttery to d istrib u te C h ero k ee lan d , th e fed eral g o v ern m en t essen tially lo o k ed th e o th er w ay . (F o rem an , 1 9 3 2 ) F aced w ith Jack so n ‘s refu sal to en fo rce th e S u p rem e C o u rt’s d ecisio n , th e C h ero k ee lead ersh ip sp lit. O n e factio n , led b y P rin cip al C h ief Jo h n R o ss, co n tin u ed to resist th e fed eral g o v ern m en t’s p ressu re to n eg o tiate a treaty fo r C h ero k ee rem o v al. A n o th er factio n , led b y trib al eld er M ajo r R id g e an d h is so n , Jo h n , cam e to b eliev e th at rem o v al w as in ev itab le— an d th at, n o m atter h o w m u ch th ey p erso n ally o p p o sed th e id ea, th e C h ero k ee sh o u ld n eg o tiate w ith Jack so n to g et th e b est d eal p o ssib le. T h e d iv isio n in th e C h ero k ee lead ersh ip led to p o litical b rin k sm an sh ip an d , ev en tu ally , v io len ce. T h e p ro R o ss factio n o rg an ized itself in to th e “N atio n al P arty ” w h ile th e p ro R id g e factio n called itself th e “T reaty P arty .” In 1 8 3 2 , R o ss can celed trib al electio n s an d th e C h ero k ee N atio n al C o u n cil th reaten ed to im p each M ajo r an d Jo h n R id g e; later, a p ro m in en t T reaty P arty m em b er w as m u rd ered . B u t Jo h n R id g e an d o th er m em b ers o f th e T reaty P arty co n tin u ed to m eet secretly w ith fed eral o fficials. (B erry , 2 0 1 2 ) R e fe re n c e s B erry , C . (2 0 1 2 ) F actio n alism , F ig h tin g , an d th e T rag ed y o f th e T rail. R etriev ed fro m w w w .allth in g sch ero k ee.co m /factio n alism fig h tin g trag ed y trail/ F ite, G . (1 9 4 9 ). “D ev elo p m en t o f th e C o tto n In d u stry b y th e F iv e C iv ilized T rib es in In d ian T errito ry ” T h e Jo u rn a l o f S o u th ern H isto ry, V o l. 1 5 , N o . 3 . 3 4 2 3 5 3 . F o rem an , G . (1 9 3 2 ). In d ia n R em o va l: T h e E m ig ra tio n o f th e F ive C ivilized T rib es o f In d ia n s. N o rm an , O K : U n iv ersity o f O k lah o m a P ress. U n ited N atio n s G en eral A ssem b ly (1 9 9 2 ) R eso lu tio n 4 7 /1 2 1 , D ecem b er 1 8 , 1 9 9 2 . W illiam s, D . (Jan u ary 1 2 , 2 0 1 6 ) G o ld R u sh ; N ew G eo rg ia E n cy clo p ed ia. R etriev ed fro m w w w .g eo rg iaen cy clo p ed ia.o rg /articles/h isto ry arch aeo lo g y /g o ld ru sh Jo h n R id g e, a lead er o f th e T reaty P arty , w as assassin ated in 1 8 3 9 . (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) T h e T r a g ic Jo u r n e y W e s t In 1 8 3 5 , ab o u t 4 0 0 su p p o rters o f th e T reaty P arty — a sm all fractio n o f th e 1 6 ,0 0 0 C h ero k ee th en liv in g east o f th e M ississip p i— m et w ith a fed eral n eg o tiato r in th e C h ero k ee cap ital o f N ew E ch o ta. O n D ecem b er 2 9 , th e g ro u p ‘s n eg o tiatin g co m m ittee ap p ro v ed th e T reaty o f N ew E ch o ta, u n d er w h ich th e C h ero k ee w o u ld relo cate to In d ian T errito ry in retu rn fo r $ 5 m illio n (alo n g w ith an o th er $ 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 in ed u catio n al fu n d s), an d lan d eq u al to th e am o u n t th ey w ere g iv in g u p . T h e o rig in al treaty also co n tain ed a clau se th at w o u ld h av e allo w ed in d iv id u al C h ero k ee to rem ain east o f th e M ississip p i an d b eco m e A m erican citizen s if th ey g av e u p claim s to th eir lan d , b u t P resid en t Jack so n rejected th at p ro v isio n . (P erd u e an d G reen , 2 0 0 4 ) T h e C h ero kee R em o va l w a s d ra m a tized in a 2 0 0 9 d o cu m en ta ry, “W e W ill R em a in : T h e T ra il o f T ea rs.” T o see a ll o r p a rt o f th is d o cu m en ta ry, click h ere. Y o u ca n w a tch a s m u ch o f th e d o cu m en ta ry a s yo u ‘d like, b u t th e p a rt releva n t to th e T ra il o f T ea rs co n sists o f S eg m en ts 1 8 2 8 . Y o u w ill h a ve to lo g in to S h a p iro L ib ra ry w ith yo u r S N H U cred en tia ls to a ccess th is strea m in g vid eo . Jo h n R o ss p ro m p tly d en o u n ced th e treaty an d th e C h ero k ee N atio n al C o u n cil d eclared it a frau d , b u t th e U .S . S en ate ratified it in 1 8 3 6 b y a sin g le v o te. U n d er term s o f th e treaty , C h ero k ee h ad tw o y ears to m o v e w est v o lu n tarily , b efo re th e U .S . A rm y w o u ld b eg in a “fo rced rem o v al.” R elativ ely few C h ero k ee, v irtu ally all o f th em su p p o rters o f th e T reaty P arty , relo cated w illin g ly . In 1 8 3 8 , Jack so n ‘s su ccesso r, P resid en t M artin V an B u ren , o rd ered G en eral W in field S co tt to b eg in fo rcib ly rem o v in g th e C h ero k ee. B u t th e in itial rem o v al o p eratio n , in v o lv in g ab o u t 3 ,0 0 0 N ativ es, resu lted in h u n d red s o f d eath s an d d esertio n s; S co tt su sp en d ed th e o p eratio n an d p laced th e rem ain in g C h ero k ee in 1 1 in tern m en t cam p s. E v en tu ally , P rin cip al C h ief Jo h n R o ss— b o w in g to th e in ev itab le, b u t also h o p in g to safeg u ard h is p o sitio n as lead er o n ce th e C h ero k ee arriv ed in In d ian C o u n try — sig n ed a co n tract w ith th e g o v ern m en t to o v ersee th e relo catio n p lan . (P ru ch a, 1 9 8 4 ) R o ss arran g ed fo r 1 2 w ag o n train s, each w ith ro u g h ly 1 ,0 0 0 C h ero k ee, to m ak e th e th o u san d m ile trip w est. (R o ss an d o th er N atio n al P arty lead ers trav eled in g reater co m fo rt ab o ard th e steam b o at V icto ria .) S tartin g o u t in O cto b er an d N o v em b er, th e w ag o n train s en d u red h arsh w in ter co n d itio n s d u rin g th e th ree to fo u rm o n th jo u rn ey , an d h u n d red s m o re p erish ed . T h is is th e p h ase o f th e C h ero k ee R em o v al co m m o n ly k n o w n as th e T rail o f T ears. E stim ates fo r th e to tal n u m b er o f d eath s d u rin g th e C h ero k ee R em o v al v ary w id ely , fro m a lo w o f 2 ,0 0 0 to a h ig h o f 6 ,0 0 0 . T h e m o st co m m o n ly cited fig u re is 4 ,0 0 0 ; th is n u m b er tak es in to acco u n t th o se w h o d ied d u rin g th e in itial A rm y rem o v al o p eratio n ; in th e in tern m en t cam p s; an d o n th e w ag o n train s. (P ru ch a, 1 9 8 4 ; A n d erso n , 1 9 9 1 ) T h e m o v e w est d id n o th in g to h eal th e d iv isio n s w ith in th e C h ero k ee lead ersh ip . F o llo w ers o f th e T reaty P arty , m an y o f w h o m h ad relo cated v o lu n tarily , alig n ed th em selv es w ith th e O ld S ettlers w h o h ad arriv ed b efo re 1 8 3 0 . R o ss an d h is N atio n al P arty fo llo w ers arriv ed in early 1 8 3 9 , an d h e p ro m p tly asserted h is p o sitio n as P rin cip al C h ief; th e fo llo w in g Ju n e, th ree o f th e lead ers o f th e T reaty P arty — M ajo r R id g e, Jo h n R id g e, an d E lias B o u d in o t— w ere assassin ated b y su p p o rters o f th e N atio n al P arty . T h e k illin g s set o ff a w av e o f in tertrib al v io len ce th at lasted fo r a d ecad e, an d fierce riv alries w ith in th e trib al lead ersh ip lasted th ro u g h o u t th e A m erican C iv il W ar. (W ilk in s, 1 9 7 0 ) W h en Jo h n R o ss d ied in 1 8 6 6 , th e C h ero k ee N atio n w as still b itterly d iv id ed . R e fe re n c e s A n d erso n , W ., ed . (1 9 9 1 ) C h ero kee R em o va l: B efo re a n d A fter. A th en s, G A : U n iv ersity o f G eo rg ia P ress. P erd u e, T . an d G reen , M . (2 0 0 5 ) T h e C h ero kee R em o va l: A B rief H isto ry w ith D o cu m en ts. B o sto n : S t. M artin ‘s P ress. P ru ch a, F . (1 9 8 4 ). T h e G rea t F a th er: T h e U n ited S ta tes G o vern m en t a n d th e A m erica n In d ia n s. L in co ln , N eb rask a: U n iv ersity o f N eb rask a P ress. W ilk in s, T . (1 9 7 0 ) C h ero kee T ra g ed y. N ew Y o rk : M acm illan C o m p an y . E x e r c is e : F u r t h e r R e a d in g s T h e fo llo w in g p assag e is ex cerp ted fro m “T o O v eraw e th e In d ian s an d G iv e C o n fid en ce to th e W h ites: P rep aratio n s fo r th e R em o v al o f th e C h ero k ee N atio n fro m G eo rg ia”. R ead th e p assag e an d th en an sw er th e q u estio n fo llo w in g it, k eep in g in m in d th e co n cep t o f h isto rical co m p lex ity . C lick o n th e title o f th e article to read , d o w n lo ad , an d p rin t a co p y o f th e tex t. T h ese read in g s are p ro v id ed b y th e S h ap iro L ib rary . T h is rea d in g is req u ired . Y o u w ill h a ve to lo g in to S h a p iro L ib ra ry w ith yo u r S N H U cred en tia ls to a ccess th is a rticle. ” T o O v e r a w e th e In d ia n s a n d G iv e C o n fid e n c e to th e W h ite s:” P r e p a r a tio n s fo r th e R e m o v a l o f th e C h e r o k e e N a tio n fr o m G e o r g ia ” F am iliar acco u n ts o f C h ero k ee N atio n rem o v al n arrate a sto ry o f th e sp rin g o f 1 8 3 8 w h en th e C h ero k ees w ere su rp rised in th eir field s o r at th eir d in n er tab les, ro u n d ed u p lik e an im als, an d fo rced in to sto ck ad es. C o n fin ed an d g u ard ed , th ey su ffered fo r m o n th s w ith o u t ad eq u ate su p p lies, fo o d , o r san itatio n ; th ey d ied b y th e h u n d red s fro m ex p o su re o r d isease. T h ese n arrativ es, w h ich u n d erstan d ab ly fo cu s o n th e terro r o f rem o v al, o b scu re im p o rtan t d ev elo p m en ts th at o ccu rred b etw een treaty ratificatio n an d rem o v al en fo rcem en t. G eo rg ian s in terp reted C h ero k ee resistan ce as th e p relu d e to a v io len t u p risin g . T h eir irratio n al fears co m b in ed w ith su sp icio n o f th e fed eral g o v ern m en t to m ak e rem o v al p rep aratio n s in G eo rg ia a h ap h azard an d b ru tal affair…. M ilitary p rep aratio n s fo r In d ian rem o v al in G eo rg ia b eg an in th e sp rin g o f 1 8 3 6 an d en d ed in th e sp rin g o f 1 8 3 8 . In th o se tw o y ears fed eral an d state o fficials set u p an d u n stead ily ex p an d ed m ilitary o p eratio n s. T h ey d id so in a state d eep ly h o stile to w ard In d ian s an d resen tfu l o f fed eral au th o rity . G eo rg ian s receiv ed little co m fo rt fro m th e C h ero k ee ex p u lsio n treaty o r fro m th e g o v ern m en t’s su b stan tial rem o v al p ro ced u res. C o n v in ced o f C h ero k ee treach ery an d th eir o w n v u ln erab ility , citizen s p ressed th e g o v ern o r to b u ild fo rts, h an d o u t w eap o n s, activ ate tro o p s, an d d isarm o r arrest C h ero k ees. T h ey co n sid ered an d rep eated ly d escrib ed th e C h ero k ees as h o stile, reg ard less o f co n trary ev id en ce. C o n cern ed ab o u t th e v o latility o f G eo rg ian s an d u n ab le to fath o m th e C h ero k ees’ resp o n se to th e treaty , g o v ern m en tal au th o rities p rep ared fo r w ar in sid e th e C h ero k ee N atio n …. C o n d itio n s in th e state rem ain ed v o latile as fo rm er g o v ern o r G eo rg e G ilm er retu rn ed to o ffice in 1 8 3 7 . W o rried th at in tem p erate w h ites w ere m o re lik ely th an reso lu te C h ero k ees to sp ark v io len ce, h e ap p o in ted n ew ag en ts in th e C h ero k ee co u n ties. T h eir ch arg e w as to m o n ito r C h ero k ee attitu d es an d b eh av io r, an d , ju st as im p o rtan tly , to rep o rt an y ab u se o f C h ero k ees b y w h ite G eo rg ian s. In early D ecem b er 1 8 3 7 G ilm er d em an d ed th at Jo sep h H en ry in W alk er C o u n ty , L acy W itch er in P au ld in g C o u n ty , B en jam in C h astain in G ilm er C o u n ty , an d G eo rg e K ello g g in F o rsy th C o u n ty “rep o rt im m ed iately w h eth er In d ian s in y o u r ag en cy h av e b een d istu rb ed in th eir o ccu p an cy an d T h e fo llo w in g read in g s o ffer ad d itio n al in sig h ts ab o u t th e C h ero k ee R em o v al an d th e T rail o f T ears: T h e P rice o f C h ero k ee R em o v a l: A b rief article th at lo o k s at th e C h ero k ee R em o v al fro m an eco n o m ic p ersp ectiv e, m easu rin g th e to tal co st o f th e rem o v al. Y o u can read it at th is lin k . T h is rea d in g is req u ired . ” R em o v a l, R eu n io n , a n d D ia sp o ra ” : A n an aly sis o f th e co m p lex p o litical d y n am ics th at ch aracterized th e relatio n sh ip b etw een d ifferen t g ro u p s o f C h ero k ee w h o m ig rated W est b efo re 1 8 3 8 , an d th o se w h o en d u red th e T rail o f T ears. T h is essay is C h ap ter T h ree o f T h e C h ero kee D ia sp o ra , b y G reg o ry D . S m ith ers (N ew H av en , C T : Y ale U n iv ersity P ress, 2 0 1 5 ). Y o u can read it at th is lin k . T h is rea d in g is o p tio n a l. w h at step s h av e b een tak en to p ro tect th em .” P eacefu l an d tim ely rem o v al, h e em p h asized , d ep en d ed o n th eir p ro tectio n o f In d ian rig h ts u n til M ay 2 3 , 1 8 3 8 . If G eo rg ian s failed in th eir resp o n sib ilities, th e g o v ern o r co n sid ered a b lo o d y co n flict in ev itab le. M ean w h ile, th e fed eral g o v ern m en t m o v ed sw iftly to im p lem en t th e term s o f th e N ew E ch o ta treaty . W ith in d ay s o f treaty ratificatio n , th e g o v ern m en t called w ar h ero Jo h n E llis W o o l fro m T ro y , N ew Y o rk , to tak e co m m an d o f th e n ew A rm y o f th e C h ero k ee N atio n . B y Ju n e, W o o l w as o n h is w ay to th e C h ero k ee A g en cy in A th en s, T en n essee, to estab lish a m ilitary b ase. F o rt C ass b ecam e h ead q u arters fo r th e rem o v al o f th e C h ero k ee N atio n . T h e o rg an izatio n o f fed eral rem o v al p ro v ed erratic, w h ich co m p licated p ro ced u res an d p ro d u ced an arm y o f u n certain ab ilities. G en eral W o o l w as o n e o f th ree career m ilitary o fficers w h o led th e A rm y o f th e C h ero k ee N atio n in a tw o y ear p erio d . O n e y ear after arriv in g in T en n essee, W o o l d ep arted fo r h is co u rt m artial o n ch arg es o f m istreatin g A lab am a citizen s an d p ro p erty .1 3 T h e arm y th en su m m o n ed C o lo n el W illiam L in d say o f L im esto n e, A lab am a, to rep lace h im . L in d say co m m an d ed d u rin g th e seco n d y ear, b u t o n e m o n th b efo re th e treaty d ead lin e h e ced ed co m m an d to G en eral W in field S co tt. A ll th ree co m m an d ers faced su sp icio u s state au th o rities, an asso rtm en t o f illp rep ared tro o p s, h o stile G eo rg ian s, an d a C h ero k ee N atio n w h o lly resistan t to d isp o ssessio n . U n d er th e circu m stan ces, rem o v al p rep aratio n s co u ld h ard ly h av e p ro ceed ed sm o o th ly . S in ce th ey h ad a sig n ed an d ratified treaty , au th o rities assu m ed th e C h ero k ees w o u ld em ig rate v o lu n tarily to In d ian T errito ry . G o v ern m en t ag en ts w h o m et w ith C h ero k ees co n clu d ed th at em ig ratio n w as em in en t an d co n v ey ed th eir assu ran ces to o th ers. W o o l w ro te th at th e d aily rep o rts h e receiv ed in d u ced h im to b eliev e “th at a larg e p o rtio n o f th e n atio n w as p rep ared to su b m it to th e treaty an d to rem o v e w est at th e p ro p er tim e.” A s h e m et w ith th e h ead m en o f C h ero k ee to w n s, h o w ev er, W o o l so o n learn ed th e ex ten t o f th eir o p p o sitio n to th e treaty . A fter o n ly th ree w eek s as co m m an d er, h e b eg an w arn in g th e fed eral g o v ern m en t th at th e m ajo rity o f C h ero k ees co n sid ered th e treaty frau d u len t.1 4 H e reco g n ized th at th eir o p p o sitio n sig n aled w id esp read rejectio n o f v o lu n tary d ep artu re, an d th at so m e d eg ree o f m ilitary actio n w o u ld b e n ecessary . Iñ u p iat w ith a N ativ e sk in b o at, o r u m iak , 1 9 3 5 . (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) P ru d h o e B ay in 1 9 6 8 , th e y ear o il w as d isco v ered th ere. (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) T h e m e : T h in k in g A b o u t H is t o r y | L e a r n in g B lo c k 8 -1 : A la s k a N a t iv e C o r p o r a t io n s L a n d a n d O il In M arch 1 8 6 7 , T sar A lex an d er II o f R u ssia ag reed to sell “R u ssian A m erica” (q u ick ly ren am ed th e “D ep artm en t o f A lask a”) to th e U n ited S tates. U n d er th e T reaty o f C essio n , th e U .S . g o v ern m en t p aid th e T sar $ 7 .2 m illio n fo r a territo ry th at co m p rised 5 8 6 ,4 1 2 sq u are m iles— ro u g h ly tw o cen ts an acre. B u t w h o rea lly o w n ed all th at lan d ? A t th e tim e o f th e A lask a P u rch ase, S ecretary o f S tate W illiam H . S ew ard estim ated th at th e N ativ e p o p u latio n o f A lask a w as slig h tly less th an 6 0 ,0 0 0 . (S ew ard , 1 8 9 1 ) T h ese A lask a N ativ es— in clu d in g th e In u it, T lin g it, Y u p ik , H aid a, A leu t, an d Iñ u p iat, am o n g m an y o th ers— claim ed th at th e lan d h ad alw ay s b een th eir h o m e. T h eir ab o rig in al lan d claim s d ated b ack w ell b efo re A m erican o r ev en R u ssian o w n ersh ip o f th e lan d . T h o se lan d claim s w en t u n reso lv ed fo r m o re th an a cen tu ry ; th e U n ited S tates g o v ern m en t claim ed o w n ersh ip o f th e v ast m ajo rity o f A lask an lan d u n til th e 1 9 6 0 s. In 1 9 7 1 , o n ly ab o u t 1 m illio n o f th e state’s 3 7 5 m illio n acres w ere in p riv ate h an d s. (T u rn er, 1 9 8 2 ). B u t, w ith A lask a so sp arsely p o p u lated (esp ecially in th e v ast In terio r), an d w ith little ag ricu ltu re o r co m m ercial u se fo r m o st A lask an lan d , th ere w ere few co n flicts o v er th e N ativ es’ co n tin u ed u se o f it. M o st o f A lask a w as n o t su itab le fo r settlem en t, in th e sam e w ay th at lan d in th e L o w er 4 8 w as; fo r th at reaso n , relativ ely few n o n N ativ es w ere in terested in th e lan d . C o n g ress in 1 8 8 4 p assed th e A lask a O rg an ic A ct, w h ich p ro tected th e N ativ es’ rig h t to th e “u se an d o ccu p an cy ” o f an cestral lan d , w ith o u t ad d ressin g th e q u estio n o f w h eth er th e N ativ es actu ally o w n ed it. (Jo n es, 1 9 8 1 ) A ll th at ch an g ed in 1 9 6 8 , w h en th e A tlan ticR ich field C o m p an y d isco v ered o il at P ru d h o e B ay o n A lask a’s A rctic C o ast. It q u ick ly b ecam e ap p aren t th at th e m o st effectiv e w ay to g et cru d e o il fro m P ru d h o e B ay to m ark ets in th e L o w er 4 8 w o u ld b e to b u ild a p ip elin e to carry th e o il to th e p o rt o f V ald ez in so u th ern A lask a. (B an et 1 9 9 1 ) B u t to b u ild th e p ip elin e, th e o il co m p an ies w o u ld n eed clear title to th e lan d — lan d th at w as still su b ject to N ativ e lan d claim s. It w as a scen ario th at h ad p lay ed o u t so m an y tim es b efo re in A m erican h isto ry : lan d th at fo r cen tu ries h ad b een u sed b y N ativ es w as, su d d en ly , ex trem ely v alu ab le to n o n N ativ es. S o m an y tim es b efo re, th at scen ario h ad en d ed u p w ith N ativ es b ein g fo rced o r ch eated o u t o f th eir lan d . B u t th e o u tco m e th is tim e w o u ld b e v ery d ifferen t. T h is learn in g b lo ck u ses th e h isto ry o f th e A lask a lan d claim issu e as an o th er w ay to u se h isto rical ev id en ce to d raw co n clu sio n s ab o u t h isto rical ev en ts— as w ell as to rein fo rce y o u r u n d erstan d in g o f h isto rical co n tin g en cy an d co m p lex ity . F o rm er A lask a G o v ern o r W alter H ick el. (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) L e a r n in g O b je c tiv e s In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u w ill: U se h isto rical ev id en ce to d raw co n clu sio n s ab o u t a h isto rical ev en t A ssess th e co n tin g en cy an d co m p lex ity o f h isto rical ev en ts R e fe re n c e s B an et, A . (1 9 9 1 ). “O il an d G as D ev elo p m en t o n A lask a’s N o rth S lo p e: P ast R esu lts an d F u tu re P ro sp ects” A n ch o rag e, A K : B u reau o f L an d M an ag em en t A lask a S tate O ffice. R etriev ed fro m w w w .b lm .g o v /sty le/m ed ialib /b lm /ak /ak test/o fr.P ar.4 9 9 8 7 .F ile.d at/O F R _ 3 4 .p d f. Jo n es, R . (1 9 8 1 ). “A lask a N ativ e C laim s S ettlem en t A ct o f 1 9 7 1 (P u b lic L aw 9 2 2 0 3 ): H isto ry an d A n aly sis T o g eth er W ith S u b seq u en t A m en d m en ts (R ep o rt N o . 8 1 1 2 7 G O V ).” W ash in g to n , D C : C o n g ressio n al R esearch S erv ice. S ew ard , F . W . (1 8 9 1 ) S ew a rd a t W a sh in g to n a s S en a to r a n d S ecreta ry o f S ta te. N ew Y o rk : D erb y an d M iller. T u rn er, W . (1 9 8 2 ). “A reas as V ast as W h o le S tates N o w C h an g e H an d s in A lask a.” T h e N ew Y o rk T im es, O cto b er 8 , 1 9 8 2 . A N C S A a n d N a t iv e C o r p o r a t io n s A lask a w as ad m itted to th e U n io n as th e 4 9 th state o n Jan u ary 3 , 1 9 5 9 . U n d er th e term s o f th e A lask a S tateh o o d A ct, th e fed eral g o v ern m en t w o u ld tran sfer o w n ersh ip o f u p to 1 0 4 .5 m illio n acres o f lan d to th e n ew state, b u t n o n e o f th is w o u ld b e lan d th at w as su b ject to N ativ e claim s. (A lask a S tateh o o d A ct, 1 9 5 8 . ) T h e law g av e th e state 2 5 y ears to select w h ich tracts o f lan d it w an ted . In th e 1 9 6 0 s, th e state b eg an to m ak e its selectio n s— b u t m u ch o f th e lan d it w an ted w as su b ject to N ativ e claim s. S ev eral N ativ e g ro u p s filed law su its to sto p th e lan d selectio n s, an d th e A lask a F ed eratio n o f N ativ es (A F N ) w as fo u n d ed to ad v o cate fo r a fair an d co m p reh en siv e settlem en t to th e lan d claim issu e. In resp o n se, th e fed eral g o v ern m en t sh u t d o w n th e selectio n p ro cess an d to ld th e state to n eg o tiate an ag reem en t w ith th e N ativ es. (Jo n es, 1 9 8 1 ) T h e d isco v ery o f o il at P ru d h o e B ay in 1 9 6 8 ad d ed u rg en cy to th o se n eg o tiatio n s. W ith o u t a reso lu tio n o f th e N ativ e claim s, it w o u ld n o t b e p o ssib le to b u ild th e m assiv e T ran sA lask a P ip elin e th at th e o il in d u stry said w as n eed ed to carry A lask an o il to m ark ets in th e L o w er 4 8 . (N ask e, 1 9 9 4 ) T h e p ressu re to co m e to a q u ick settlem en t in th e in terest o f eco n o m ic d ev elo p m en t w as in fact rem in iscen t o f th e p ressu re to seize N ativ e lan d s fo llo w in g th e G eo rg ia G o ld R u sh in th e 1 8 3 0 s. In each case, th e o p p o rtu n ity to ex tract a h ig h ly v alu ab le n atu ral reso u rce su d d en ly m ad e N ativ e lan d ev en m o re v alu ab le th an b efo re. B u t sev eral facto rs h elp ed to p ro d u ce a v ery d ifferen t o u tco m e fo r th e A lask a N ativ es: T h e N ativ es h ad effectiv e p o litical rep resen tatio n , th ro u g h th e A F N an d o th er o rg an izatio n s; U .S . co u rts w ere m o re sy m p ath etic to th e A lask a N ativ es’ claim s, ru lin g in th eir fav o r in sev eral in stan ces; T h e state g o v ern m en t w as w illin g to seek a n eg o tiated settlem en t w ith th e N ativ es; T h e fed eral g o v ern m en t— in clu d in g S ecretary o f th e In terio r W alter H ick el, a fo rm er g o v ern o r o f A lask a— also fav o red a n eg o tiated settlem en t; an d G reater p u b lic aw aren ess o f th e in ju stices d o n e to N ativ es in th e p ast in creased th e so cial an d p o litical p ressu re to fin d an eq u itab le settlem en t. (Jo n es, 1 9 8 1 ) A fter p ro tracted n eg o tiatio n s, A lask an o fficials an d th e A F N reach ed an ag reem en t in p rin cip le: N ativ es w o u ld receiv e lan d th at th ey h ad h isto rically u sed an d d ro p th eir claim s to an y o th er lan d in th e state in retu rn fo r a cash settlem en t. T h e ex act term s o f th at ag reem en t w o u ld b e fo r th e fed eral g o v ern m en t to d ecid e an d — after in itially o fferin g th e N ativ es far less th an th ey w an ted , in term s o f lan d an d cash — C o n g ress an d P resid en t R ich ard N ix o n ev en tu ally ag reed to a h isto ric d eal. O n D ecem b er 1 8 , 1 9 7 1 , P resid en t N ix o n sig n ed in to law th e A lask a N ativ e C laim s S ettlem en t A ct (A N C S A ), w h ich at th e tim e w as th e larg est lan d claim settlem en t in A m erican h isto ry . In retu rn fo r lettin g th e fed eral g o v ern m en t “ex tin g u ish ” th eir claim s to m o st A lask an lan d , N ativ es receiv ed 4 4 m illio n acres an d a cash p ay m en t o f $ 9 6 2 .5 m illio n . T h e 4 4 m illio n acres w as o n en in th o f th e to tal area o f th e state o f A lask a; th e m o n etary settlem en t rep resen ted a d irect p ay m en t o f $ 4 6 2 .5 m illio n fro m th e fed eral g o v ern m en t an d an o th er $ 5 0 0 m illio n to b e p aid o v er tim e fro m state o il rev en u es. (A N C S A , 1 9 7 1 ) E v en m o re h isto ric th an th e size o f th e A N C S A settlem en t w as th e w ay it w as stru ctu red — a rad ical d ep artu re fro m th e trad itio n al m o d el o f N ativ e reserv atio n s in th e L o w er 4 8 , in w h ich th e fed eral g o v ern m en t h o ld s N ativ e lan d s in tru st. In stead o f estab lish in g reserv atio n s A N C S A set u p a sy stem o f N ativ e co rp o ratio n s to ad m in ister th e lan d an d in v est th e m o n etary settlem en t fo r th e b en efit o f N ativ es. (T h o m as, 1 9 8 6 ) T h e law set u p 1 2 reg io n al co rp o ratio n s, each asso ciated w ith a p articu lar p art o f th e state an d th e N ativ es w h o trad itio n ally liv ed th ere. A ll N ativ es w h o w ere aliv e in 1 9 7 1 co u ld en ro ll in o n e o f th e co rp o ratio n s, an d each receiv ed 1 0 0 sh ares o f sto ck in th e co rp o ratio n in w h ich th ey en ro lled . (A 1 3 th co rp o ratio n w as estab lish ed later, fo r N ativ es w h o w ere n o t liv in g in A lask a in 1 9 7 1 ). T h e law also A m ap o f th e o rig in al 1 2 A lask a N ativ e reg io n al co rp o ratio n s. A 1 3 th reg io n al co rp o ratio n w as estab lish ed later. (click m ap to en larg e) (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) A T lin g it to tem p o le in S itk a, A lask a. (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) estab lish ed m o re th an 2 0 0 lo cal o r “v illag e” co rp o ratio n s, in w h ich N ativ es co u ld also en ro ll an d receiv e sh ares o f sto ck . T h e co rp o ratio n s w ere g iv en free rein to u se th e lan d an d an y m in eral o r o th er n atu ral reso u rces it m ig h t h o ld to d ev elo p fo rp ro fit b u sin esses an d to p ay N ativ e sh areh o ld ers a y early d iv id en d b ased o n th o se p ro fits. T h e co rp o ratio n stru ctu re w as th e b rain ch ild o f th e A F N , w h ich saw th is p ro p o sal as an o p p o rtu n ity to ex ten d “th e tran sfo rm atio n al p o w er o f cap italism …to A lask a N ativ es,” w h ile also p reserv in g th e lan d an d cash settlem en t so th at it co u ld b en efit fu tu re g en eratio n s. (L in x w iler, 2 0 0 7 ) A N C S A w as g en erally w ellreceiv ed in A lask a b y b o th N ativ es an d n o n N ativ es. A fter y ears o f leg al w ran g lin g o v er ex actly w h o w as en titled to N ativ e co rp o ratio n sh ares, m an y o f th o se co rp o ratio n s h av e g ro w n in to su ccessfu l b u sin esses th at g en erate su b stan tial d iv id en d s an d p ro v id e th o u san d s o f jo b s fo r N ativ e sh areh o ld ers. A n d , b y rem o v in g o n e critical b arrier to co n stru ctio n o f th e T ran sA lask a P ip elin e, A N C S A p av ed th e w ay fo r th e em erg en ce o f th e state’s “o il eco n o m y ,” w h ich h as g en erated su b stan tial eco n o m ic b en efits fo r b o th N ativ es an d n o n N ativ es. (A lask a H u m an ities F o ru m , 2 0 1 6 ) O n e u n iq u e asp ect o f A lask a’s “o il eco n o m y ” is th e A la sk a P erm a n en t F u n d , a state fu n d th at co llects 2 5 p ercen t o f all o il lan d ro y alties an d in v ests th o se fu n d s fo r th e b en efit o f all A lask an s. T h e F u n d , w h ich in 2 0 1 5 am o u n ted to m o re th an $ 5 1 b illio n , p ay s a y early d iv id en d to ev ery q u alified A lask an ; in 2 0 1 5 , th at m ean t a d iv id en d ch eck o f $ 2 ,0 7 2 fo r v irtu ally ev ery m an , w o m an , an d ch ild in th e state. (K lin t an d D o o g an , 2 0 1 5 ) B y en ab lin g co n stru ctio n o f th e T ran sA lask a P ip elin e, A N C S A in a v ery real sen se m ad e th e P erm an en t F u n d , an d its y early d iv id en d ch eck s, p o ssib le. S till, th e law rem ain s co n tro v ersial, esp ecially am o n g N ativ es w h o b eliev e it w eak en s ties to N ativ e h eritag e. (T h o m as, 1 9 8 5 ) A lm o st a h alfcen tu ry after its p assag e, th e ju ry is still o u t o n w h eth er A N C S A w as a “g o o d d eal” o r a “raw d eal” fo r N ativ es. B u t it is, in alm o st ev ery resp ect, a v ery d ifferen t so rt o f d eal th an th at receiv ed b y an y o th er g ro u p o f N ativ es in A m erican h isto ry . R e fe re n c e s A lask a H u m an ities F o ru m (2 0 1 6 ). A lask a N ativ e C laim s S ettlem en t A ct. R etriev ed fro m w w w .ak h isto ry co u rse.o rg /m o d ern alask a/alask an ativ eclaim ssettlem en tact, Ju n e 1 0 , 2 0 1 6 . A lask a N ativ e C laim s S ettlem en t A ct (A N C S A ), (1 9 7 1 ). P u b lic L aw 9 2 2 0 3 , 4 3 U .S .C . 1 6 0 1 et seq . A lask a S tateh o o d A ct (1 9 5 8 ). P u b lic L aw 8 5 5 0 8 , 7 2 S tat. 3 3 9 . K lin t, C . an d D o o g an , S . (2 0 1 5 ). “$ 2 ,0 7 2 : 2 0 1 5 A lask a P erm an en t F u n d d iv id en d am o u n t an n o u n ced .” A la ska D isp a tch N ew s, S ep tem b er 2 1 , 2 0 1 5 . R etriev ed fro m w w w .ad n .co m /eco n o m y /article/2 0 1 5 p fd an n o u n cem en tju sth o u rsaw ay an ch o rag e/2 0 1 5 /0 9 /2 1 / Jo n es, R . (1 9 8 1 ). “A lask a N ativ e C laim s S ettlem en t A ct o f 1 9 7 1 (P u b lic L aw 9 2 2 0 3 ): H isto ry an d A n aly sis T o g eth er W ith S u b seq u en t A m en d m en ts (R ep o rt N o . 8 1 1 2 7 G O V ).” W ash in g to n , D C : C o n g ressio n al R esearch S erv ice. L in x w iler, J. (2 0 0 7 ) T h e A lask a N ativ e C laim s S ettlem en t A ct at 3 5 : D eliv erin g o n th e P ro m ise. R etriev ed fro m w w w .lb b law y ers.co m /an csa/A N C S A % 2 0 at% 2 0 3 5 % 2 0 D eliv erin g % 2 0 o n % 2 0 th e% 2 0 P ro m ise% 2 0 P ro o f% 2 0 1 0 2 5 0 7 .p d f N ask e, C M . (1 9 9 4 ). A la ska : A H isto ry o f th e 4 9 th S ta te. N o rm an , O K : U n iv ersity o f O k lah o m a P ress. T h o m as, M . (1 9 8 6 ). “T h e A lask a N ativ e C laim s S ettlem en t A ct: C o n flict an d C o n tro v ersy .” P o la r R eco rd , V o l. 2 3 , N o . 1 4 2 , 2 7 3 6 . N a t iv e C o r p o r a t io n s : F u r t h e r R e a d in g s S o , w h at’s th e b o tto m lin e— h as A N C S A b een a su ccess o r a failu re? H av e th e N ativ e co rp o ratio n s b en efited th e N ativ e co m m u n ity , o r n o t? If y o u lo o k o n ly at th e b o tto m lin e— th at is, ju st at th e eco n o m ic p erfo rm an ce o f th e N ativ e co rp o ratio n s th em selv es— it’s fair to say th at, after a ro ck y start, m an y o f th e reg io n al co rp o ratio n s h av e d o n e fairly w ell. In 2 0 0 4 , sev en o f th e to p ten A lask ao w n ed b u sin ess w ere N ativ e reg io n al co rp o ratio n s, w h ich d istrib u ted $ 1 1 7 .5 m illio n in sh areh o ld er d iv id en d s, em p lo y ed 3 ,1 1 6 N ativ e sh areh o ld ers, an d p aid $ 5 .4 m illio n in sch o larsh ip s fo r N ativ e stu d en ts, (L in x w iler, 2 0 0 7 ) L ik e m u ch o f th e o ild ep en d en t A lask a eco n o m y , th e reg io n al co rp o ratio n s are h ig h ly sen sitiv e to flu ctu atio n s in th e p rice o f o il, an d th eir p erfo rm an ce in an y g iv en y ear w ill reflect w h eth er th e o il b u sin ess is d o in g w ell o r p o o rly . N o n eth eless, m an y o f th ese co rp o ratio n s h av e m atu red as b u sin esses an d are p ro v id in g sig n ifican t eco n o m ic b en efits fo r th eir N ativ e sh areh o ld ers. T h e eco n o m ic p erfo rm an ce o f th e v illag e co rp o ratio n s h as b een sp o ttier. M an y o f th e v illag e co rp o ratio n s w ere lo cated in rem o te ru ral areas w ith ex trem ely lim ited o p p o rtu n ities fo r eco n o m ic d ev elo p m en t. W h ile so m e v illag e co rp o ratio n s— p articu larly th o se in m o re d en sely p o p u lated areas w ith easy access to o u tsid e m ark ets— h av e fared w ell, o th ers h av e b een fo rce to m erg e o r h av e g o n e o u t o f b u sin ess. (T h o m as, 1 9 8 5 ) B u t is eco n o m ic p erfo rm a n ce all th at really m atters? W h ile A N C S A w as d esig n ed o n ly to p ro v id e A lask a N ativ es w ith o p p o rtu n ities fo r eco n o m ic d ev elo p m en t, m an y N ativ es saw th e co rp o ratio n sy stem as a su b stitu te fo r— o r a riv al to — th e trad itio n al stru ctu res o f trib al g o v ern m en t. A m o n g A lask a N ativ es, trib es are g en erally asso ciated w ith in d iv id u al v illag es (A m erican In d ian R eso u rce D irecto ry , 2 0 1 6 ); m an y o f th e su ccessfu l v illag e co rp o ratio n s h av e estab lish ed n o n p ro fit ag en cies to p ro v id e h ealth care an d o th er so cial serv ices to N ativ e sh areh o ld ers. A t th e sam e tim e, th e p ressu re to tu rn a p ro fit led m an y co rp o ratio n s, b o th reg io n al an d v illag e, to b rin g in o u tsid e ex ecu tiv es to ru n th e b u sin esses— b y p assin g trib al lead ers an d E ld ers, w h o h av e trad itio n ally h ad a rev ered p lace in A lask a N ativ e so ciety . In recen t y ears, m an y N ativ es h av e q u estio n ed th e ex ten t to w h ich th e co rp o ratio n sy stem m ig h t b e su p p lan tin g so m e trib al stru ctu res an d w eak en in g ties to N ativ e h eritag e. In so m e areas, trib al g o v ern m en t h as seen a resu rg en ce in im p o rtan ce. T h e read in g s in th is learn in g b lo ck lo o k at tw o sid es o f th e A N C S A q u estio n : th e eco n o m ic p erfo rm an ce o f th e N ativ e co rp o ratio n s an d th eir relatio n sh ip to th e N ativ e h eritag e an d trib al stru ctu res. B o th articles are tak en fro m th e sam e acad em ic jo u rn al: Jo u rn a l o f L a n d , R eso u rces, a n d E n viro n m en ta l L a w , V o l. 2 5 , N o . 2 (W in ter, 2 0 0 5 ). A N C S A U n r e a liz e d : O u r L iv e s A r e N o t M e a su r e d in D o lla r s T h e fo llo w in g ex cerp t is fro m an article b y Jam es A llaw ay , a p ro fesso r an d ex p ert o n su stain ab le eco n o m ic d ev elo p m en t, an d B y ro n M allett, fo rm er p resid en t o f th e A lask a F ed eratio n o f N ativ es an d fo rm er C E O o f S ealask a, o n e o f th e larg er N ativ e reg io n al co rp o ratio n s. Y o u can read it at th is lin k , w h ich w ill tak e y o u to th e Jo u rn a l o f L a n d , R eso u rces, a n d E n viro n m en ta l L a w ; y o u can fin d th is sp ecific article in th e T ab le o f C o n ten ts o n th e left sid e o f th e p ag e. C lick o n th e title o f th e article to read , d o w n lo ad , an d p rin t a co p y o f th e tex t. T h ese read in g s are p ro v id ed b y th e S h ap iro L ib rary . T h is rea d in g is req u ired . Y o u w ill h a ve to lo g in to S h a p iro L ib ra ry w ith yo u r S N H U cred en tia ls. O n e o f th e leg acies o f A N C S A ‘s sh o rt h isto ry is th e co n fu sio n it h as cau sed , in clu d in g co n fu sio n o v er g o v ern in g stru ctu res. C ertain ly in S o u th east A lask a w e h av e k n o w n th at clan s, fam ily , an d fam ily relatio n sh ip s w ere critical in th e co n d u ct o f o u r affairs. I th in k th is w as th e case all acro ss th e state. E x istin g trad itio n al g o v ern in g g ro u p s, w ith th eir relatio n sh ip s an d stru ctu res, d id n o t g o aw ay w ith A N C S A . In fact, esp ecially in th e last d ecad e, th ere h as b een a resu rg en ce o f th o se in stitu tio n s. T h e resu rg en ce h as b een felt an d seen all acro ss th e state, p articu larly b ecau se th ere w as a u n iv ersal sen se th at A N C S A , an d o th er effo rts th at d eal w ith o u r circu m stan ces, w ere n o t g ettin g at th e co re o f w h at w e n eed ed . It is cru cial th at th ere is a p lace fo r trad itio n al trib al g o v ern m en tal stru ctu res. I th in k th e em erg en ce o f trib es in recen t y ears is n o t so m u ch ab o u t g o v ern m en tal stru ctu res, b u t is a reassertio n th at w e w ill tak e h o ld o f o u r o w n liv es. W e w ill b e resp o n sib le fo r o u r d estin ies, w h ich is a p o w erfu l id eal. It also p laces a p ro fo u n d o b lig atio n o n N ativ e p eo p le. T h ere is a v ital p lace fo r E ld ers h ere. W e can n o t k n o w th e p ast an d h av e a sen se o f v alu es, w e can n o t h av e a sen se o f p lace o r p u rp o se, w ith o u t E ld ers. E ld ers are an im p o rtan t p art o f th e sp iritu al p ath . T h ey carry th e fire. W e d o n o t n eed to in stitu tio n alize th e ro le o f E ld ers, o th er th an to su stain th em m aterially . If w e d o , th ey w ill su stain u s sp iritu ally . A la sk a N a tiv e s a n d th e N e w H a r p o o n : E c o n o m ic P e r fo r m a n c e o f th e A N C S A R e g io n a l C o r p o r a tio n s T h e fo llo w in g ex cerp t is fro m an article b y S tep h en C o lt, an eco n o m ist at th e U n iv ersity o f A lask a A n ch o rag e an d an ex p ert o n A lask a N ativ e co rp o ratio n s. Y o u can read it at th is lin k , w h ich w ill tak e y o u to th e Jo u rn a l o f L a n d , R eso u rces, a n d E n viro n m en ta l L a w ; y o u can fin d th is sp ecific article in th e T ab le o f C o n ten ts o n th e left sid e o f th e p ag e. C lick o n th e title o f th e article to read , d o w n lo ad , an d p rin t a co p y o f th e tex t. T h ese read in g s are p ro v id ed b y th e S h ap iro L ib rary . T h is rea d in g is req u ired . Y o u w ill h a ve to lo g in to S h a p iro L ib ra ry w ith yo u r S N H U cred en tia ls. A n Iñ u p iat lead er, C h arlie E d w ard sen , called th e [N ativ e reg io n al] co rp o ratio n s th e “n ew h arp o o n “— a referen ce to h is p eo p le’s h isto ric relian ce o n w h alin g . …F o r at least th e first tw en ty y ears o f o p eratio n — fro m 1 9 7 3 to 1 9 9 3 — th e eco n o m ic p erfo rm an ce o f th e reg io n al co rp o ratio n s w as su rp risin g ly p o o r. T h ro u g h 1 9 9 3 , th ese co rp o ratio n s as a g ro u p lo st ab o u t $ 3 8 0 m illio n , o r m o re th an eig h ty p ercen t o f th eir o rig in al cash en d o w m en t, in d irect b u sin ess o p eratio n s. O n ly th e o n etim e sale o f o ld g ro w th tim b er an d o th er n atu ral assets an d a o n etim e tax w in d fall allo w ed th em to rep o rt p o sitiv e acco u n tin g in co m e. B eh in d th e p o o r av erag e p erfo rm an ce, h o w ev er, is a su rp risin g am o u n t o f v ariatio n th at in clu d es so m e real su ccess sto ries. C u m u lativ e p er cap ita d iv id en d s fro m 1 9 7 4 th ro u g h 1 9 9 9 v aried fro m $ 5 0 to m o re th an $ 3 4 ,0 0 0 . T h e av erag e an n u al retu rn (in clu d in g in co m e fro m reso u rce sales an d tax w in d falls) fo r th e co rp o ratio n s w as ab o u t fiv e p ercen t o f b o o k eq u ity — b u t th is retu rn v aried am o n g co rp o ratio n s fro m m in u s fifty p ercen t to p lu s tw en ty sev en p ercen t. A n d b ey o n d fin an cial retu rn s, sev eral co rp o ratio n s p ro v id ed h u n d red s o f h ig h w ag e jo b s fo r th eir N ativ e sh areh o ld ers, w h ile o th ers p ro v id ed n o n e. …T h ro u g h th eir first tw en ty y ears, A lask a N ativ e reg io n al co rp o ratio n s co u ld n o t p arlay co n tro l o f lan d , n atu ral reso u rces, an d cap ital in to su stain ed p ro fits— an d in fact su stain ed larg e lo sses in th e attem p t….L im ited an aly sis o f m o re recen t d ata sh o w s th at th e co rp o ratio n s d ram atically im p ro v ed th eir fin an cial p erfo rm an ce d u rin g th e 1 9 9 0 s. U sin g a m easu re o f ad ju sted n et in co m e th at ex clu d ed tax w in d falls an d o n etim e sales o f n atu ral reso u rce assets, th ey lo st $ 2 5 0 m illio n b etw een 1 9 7 4 an d 1 9 9 1 . B u t in 1 9 9 2 th is m easu re o f ad ju sted n et in co m e sw itch ed fro m b ein g g en erally n eg ativ e to g en erally p o sitiv e an d g ro w in g . B etw een 1 9 9 2 an d 1 9 9 8 th ey earn ed $ 7 1 0 m illio n …. …[T ]h e co rp o ratio n s h av e learn ed fro m so m e early m istak es d u rin g th ese startu p y ears….T h eir recen t su ccess su g g ests th at th e ch allen g e o f eco n o m ic d ev elo p m en t in a rem o te reg io n can b e m et, at least in p art, b y p articip atin g in th e larg er n atio n al an d g lo b al eco n o m y . R e fe re n c e s A m erican In d ian R eso u rce D irecto ry (2 0 1 6 ). A lask a N ativ e V illag es. R etriev ed fro m w eb .arch iv e.o rg /w eb /2 0 0 5 1 1 2 5 0 0 1 1 0 7 /h ttp ://w w w .in d ian s.o rg /R eso u rce/F ed T rib es9 9 /R eg io n 1 /reg io n 1 .h tm l, Ju n e1 0 , 2 0 1 6 . L in x w iler, J. (2 0 0 7 ) T h e A lask a N ativ e C laim s S ettlem en t A ct at 3 5 : D eliv erin g o n th e P ro m ise. R etriev ed fro m w w w .lb b law y ers.co m /an csa/A N C S A % 2 0 at% 2 0 3 5 % 2 0 D eliv erin g % 2 0 o n % 2 0 th e% 2 0 P ro m ise% 2 0 P ro o f% 2 0 1 0 2 5 0 7 .p d f T h o m as, M . (1 9 8 6 ). “T h e A lask a N ativ e C laim s S ettlem en t A ct: C o n flict an d C o n tro v ersy .” P o la r R eco rd , V o l. 2 3 , N o . 1 4 2 , 2 7 3 6 . T h e m e : T h in k in g A b o u t H is t o r y | L e a r n in g B lo c k 8 -2 : W h y S t u d y H is t o r y ? A t th e ro o t o f th is co u rse is a fu n d am en tal q u estio n : W h y stu d y h isto ry? A s w e’v e said b efo re, th e p u rp o se o f stu d y in g h isto ry is n o t to catalo g u e a lo n g list o f n am es an d d ates. R ath er, th e p u rp o se o f stu d y in g h isto ry is to learn m o re ab o u t th e w o rld aro u n d u s, ab o u t h u m an so ciety an d , in th e en d , ab o u t o u rselv es. H isto ry is also a to o l th at can h elp u s in w h atev er acad em ic d iscip lin e o r p ro fessio n al career w e ch o o se to p u rsu e. A s w e saw in T h em e: A p p ro ach es to H isto ry , h isto rical th in k in g is a sk ill th at can b e ap p lied to a w id e ran g e o f p ro b lem s an d issu es, b o th in th e classro o m an d in ev ery d ay life. T h e fo llo w in g p assag e is ex cerp ted fro m an essay b y th e p ro m in en t h isto rian P eter N . S tearn s, w h ich is featu red o n th e w eb site o f th e A m erican H isto rical A sso ciatio n . It p ro v id es a clear su m m ary o f h o w stu d y in g h isto ry can b en efit th o se w h o d o n ‘t ch o o se to m ak e h isto ry th eir life’s w o rk — w h ich is to say , th e v ast m ajo rity o f to d ay ‘s h isto ry stu d en ts: W h y S tu d y H isto r y ? In th e first p lace, h isto ry o ffers a sto reh o u se o f in fo rm atio n ab o u t h o w p eo p le an d so cieties b eh av e. U n d erstan d in g th e o p eratio n s o f p eo p le an d so cieties is d ifficu lt, th o u g h a n u m b er o f d iscip lin es m ak e th e attem p t. A n ex clu siv e relian ce o n cu rren t d ata w o u ld n eed lessly h an d icap o u r effo rts. H o w can w e ev alu ate w ar if th e n atio n is at p eace— u n less w e u se h isto rical m aterials? H o w can w e u n d erstan d g en iu s, th e in flu en ce o f tech n o lo g ical in n o v atio n , o r th e ro le th at b eliefs p lay in sh ap in g fam ily life, if w e d o n ‘t u se w h at w e k n o w ab o u t ex p erien ces in th e p ast?… T h e arg u m en t I m ak e p iv o ts o n a ten sio n th at u n d erlies ev ery en co u n ter w ith th e p ast: th e ten sio n b etw een th e fam iliar an d th e stran g e, b etw een feelin g s o f p ro x im ity to an d feelin g s o f d istan ce fro m th e p eo p le w e seek to u n d erstan d . N eith er o f th ese p o les d o es fu ll ju stice to h isto ry ‘s co m p lex ity , an d v eerin g to o n e sid e o r th e o th er o n ly d u lls h isto ry ‘s jag g ed ed g es an d leav es u s w ith clich é an d caricatu re. F u rth erm o re, I claim th at th e essen ce o f ach iev in g m atu re h isto rical th o u g h t rests p recisely o n o u r ab ility to n av ig ate th e jag g ed lan d scap e o f h isto ry , to trav erse th e terrain th at lies b etw een th e p o les o f fam iliarity w ith an d d istan ce fro m th e p ast. P ro fesso r S tearn s’ fu ll essay can b e fo u n d at th is lin k . T h is rea d in g is req u ired . A s a stu d en t o f h isto ry , y o u h av e th e o p p o rtu n ity to ap p ly h isto rical th in k in g to y o u r o w n life. In a b ro ad , p h ilo so p h ical sen se, stu d y in g h isto ry w ill h elp y o u to u n d erstan d h o w th e d ecisio n s y o u m ak e to d ay can cau se d ifferen t o p tio n s to o p en u p to m o rro w ; to see th e im p o rtan ce o f ju d g in g ev en ts in co n tex t; an d to b e ab le to d eal w ith th e co m p lex ity o f circu m stan ces th at co n fro n t y o u . A n d in a h ig h ly p ractical sen se, th e critical th in k in g sk ills y o u d ev elo p in th is co u rse can ap p ly d irectly to y o u r o th er acad em ic w o rk at S N H U . T h is learn in g b lo ck lo o k s at th e p ractical ap p licatio n o f h isto rical th in k in g sk ills to o th er acad em ic d iscip lin es. A stu d y o f h isto ry is essen tial fo r g o o d citizen sh ip . T h is is th e m o st co m m o n ju stificatio n fo r th e p lace o f h isto ry in sch o o l cu rricu la. S o m etim es ad v o cates o f citizen sh ip h isto ry h o p e m erely to p ro m o te n atio n al id en tity an d lo y alty th ro u g h a h isto ry sp iced b y v iv id sto ries an d lesso n s in in d iv id u al su ccess an d m o rality . B u t th e im p o rtan ce o f h isto ry fo r citizen sh ip g o es b ey o n d th is n arro w g o al an d can ev en ch allen g e it at so m e p o in ts…. W h at d o es a w elltrain ed stu d en t o f h isto ry , sch o o led to w o rk o n p ast m aterials an d o n case stu d ies in so cial ch an g e, learn h o w to d o ? T h e list is m an ag eab le, b u t it co n tain s sev eral o v erlap p in g categ o ries. T h e A b ility to A ssess E vid en ce. T h e stu d y o f h isto ry b u ild s ex p erien ce in d ealin g w ith an d assessin g v ario u s k in d s o f ev id en ce— th e so rts o f ev id en ce h isto rian s u se in sh ap in g th e m o st accu rate p ictu res o f th e p ast th at th ey can . L earn in g h o w to in terp ret th e statem en ts o f p ast p o litical lead ers — o n e k in d o f ev id en ce— h elp s fo rm th e cap acity to d istin g u ish b etw een th e o b jectiv e an d th e self serv in g am o n g statem en ts m ad e b y p resen td ay p o litical lead ers. L earn in g h o w to co m b in e d ifferen t k in d s o f ev id en ce— p u b lic statem en ts, p riv ate reco rd s, n u m erical d ata, v isu al m aterials— d ev elo p s th e ab ility to m ak e co h eren t arg u m en ts b ased o n a v ariety o f d ata. T h is sk ill can also b e ap p lied to in fo rm atio n en co u n tered in ev ery d ay life. T h e A b ility to A ssess C o n flictin g In terp reta tio n s. L earn in g h isto ry m ean s g ain in g so m e sk ill in so rtin g th ro u g h d iv erse, o ften co n flictin g in terp retatio n s. U n d erstan d in g h o w so cieties w o rk — th e cen tral g o al o f h isto rical stu d y — is in h eren tly im p recise, an d th e sam e certain ly h o ld s tru e fo r u n d erstan d in g w h at is g o in g o n in th e p resen t d ay . L earn in g h o w to id en tify an d ev alu ate co n flictin g in terp retatio n s is an essen tial citizen sh ip sk ill fo r w h ich h isto ry , as an o ften co n tested lab o rato ry o f h u m an ex p erien ce, p ro v id es train in g . T h is is o n e area in w h ich th e fu ll b en efits o f h isto rical stu d y so m etim es clash w ith th e n arro w er u ses o f th e p ast to co n stru ct id en tity . E x p erien ce in ex am in in g p ast situ atio n s p ro v id es a co n stru ctiv ely critical sen se th at can b e ap p lied to p artisan claim s ab o u t th e g lo ries o f n atio n al o r g ro u p id en tity . T h e stu d y o f h isto ry in n o sen se u n d erm in es lo y alty o r co m m itm en t, b u t it d o es teach th e n eed fo r assessin g arg u m en ts, an d it p ro v id es o p p o rtu n ities to en g ag e in d eb ate an d ach iev e p ersp ectiv e. E xp erien ce in A ssessin g P a st E xa m p les o f C h a n g e. E x p erien ce in assessin g p ast ex am p les o f ch an g e is v ital to u n d erstan d in g ch an g e in so ciety to d ay — it’s an essen tial sk ill in w h at w e are reg u larly to ld is o u r “ev erch an g in g w o rld .” A n aly sis o f ch an g e m ean s d ev elo p in g so m e cap acity fo r d eterm in in g th e m ag n itu d e an d sig n ifican ce o f ch an g e, fo r so m e ch an g es are m o re fu n d am en tal th an o th ers. C o m p arin g p articu lar ch an g es to relev an t ex am p les fro m th e p ast h elp s stu d en ts o f h isto ry d ev elo p th is cap acity . T h e ab ility to id en tify th e co n tin u ities th at alw ay s acco m p an y ev en th e m o st d ram atic ch an g es also co m es fro m stu d y in g h isto ry , as d o es th e sk ill to d eterm in e p ro b ab le cau ses o f ch an g e. L earn in g h isto ry h elp s o n e fig u re o u t, fo r ex am p le, if o n e m ain facto r— su ch as a tech n o lo g ical in n o v atio n o r so m e d elib erate n ew p o licy — acco u n ts fo r a ch an g e o r w h eth er, as is m o re co m m o n ly th e case, a n u m b er o f facto rs co m b in e to g en erate th e actu al ch an g e th at o ccu rs. L e a r n in g O b je c tiv e s In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u w ill: A ssess th e u sefu ln ess o f h isto rical th in k in g in n o n h isto rical co n tex ts A p p ly h isto rical th in k in g to sp ecific acad em ic assig n m en ts ” T h e F a m ilia r a n d t h e S t r a n g e ” S am W in eb u rg , a p ro fesso r o f ed u catio n w h o h as w ritten ex ten siv ely ab o u t h isto rical th in k in g , o ffers a m o re ly rical— b u t n o less co m p ellin g — d escrip tio n o f th e v alu e o f h isto ry in o u r d aily liv es. H e d escrib es h isto rical th in k in g as th e p ro cess o f n av ig atin g “th e ten sio n b etw een th e fam iliar an d th e stran g e,” b o th o f w h ich are essen tial to o u r u n d erstan d in g o f th e p ast. T h e p assag e b elo w is ex cerp ted fro m “H isto rical T h in k in g an d O th er U n n atu ral A cts”, p ag e 4 8 9 . T h ese read in g s are p ro v id ed b y th e S h ap iro L ib rary . T h is rea d in g is req u ired . Y o u w ill h a ve to lo g in to S h a p iro L ib ra ry w ith yo u r S N H U cred en tia ls to a ccess th is a rticle. F r o m ” H isto r ic a l T h in k in g a n d O th e r U n n a tu r a l A c ts” W h at is h isto ry g o o d fo r? W h y ev en teach it in sch o o ls? In a n u tsh ell m y claim is th at h isto ry h o ld s th e p o ten tial, o n ly p artially realized , o f h u m an izin g u s in w ay s o ffered b y few o th er areas in th e sch o o l cu rricu lu m . I m ak e n o claim o f o rig in ality in arg u in g th is p o in t o f v iew . B u t each g en eratio n , I b eliev e, m u st an sw er fo r itself an ew w h y th e stu d y o f th e p ast is im p o rtan t… T h e arg u m en t I m ak e p iv o ts o n a ten sio n th at u n d erlies ev ery en co u n ter w ith th e p ast: th e ten sio n b etw een th e fam iliar an d th e stran g e, b etw een feelin g s o f p ro x im ity to an d feelin g s o f d istan ce fro m th e p eo p le w e seek to u n d erstan d . N eith er o f th ese p o les d o es fu ll ju stice to h isto ry ‘s co m p lex ity , an d v eerin g to o n e sid e o r th e o th er o n ly d u lls h isto ry ‘s jag g ed ed g es an d leav es u s w ith clich é an d caricatu re. F u rth erm o re, I claim th at th e essen ce o f ach iev in g m atu re h isto rical th o u g h t rests p recisely o n o u r ab ility to n av ig ate th e jag g ed lan d scap e o f h isto ry , to trav erse th e terrain th at lies b etw een th e p o les o f fam iliarity w ith an d d istan ce fro m th e p ast. T h e p o le o f fam iliarity p u lls m o st stro n g ly . T h e fam iliar p ast en tices u s w ith th e p ro m ise th at w e can lo cate o u r o w n p lace in th e stream o f tim e an d so lid ify o u r id en tity in th e p resen t. B y h itch in g o u r o w n sto ries to th e sto ries o f th o se w h o w en t b efo re u s, th e p ast b eco m es a u sefu l reso u rce in o u r ev ery d ay liv es, an en d less sto reh o u se o f raw m aterials to b e sh ap ed fo r o u r p resen t n eed s. S itu atin g o u rselv es in tim e is a b asic h u m an n eed . In d eed , it is im p o ssib le to co n ceiv e o f life o n th e p lan et w ith o u t d o in g so . B u t in v iew in g th e p ast as u sab le, as so m eth in g th at sp eak s to u s w ith o u t in term ed iary o r tran slatio n , w e en d u p tu rn in g it in to y et an o th er co m m o d ity fo r o u r in stan t co n su m p tio n . W e d iscard o r ju st ig n o re v ast reg io n s o f th e p ast th at eith er co n trad ict o u r cu rren t n eed s o r fail to alig n easily w ith th em …. T h e o th er p o le in th is ten sio n , th e stran g en ess o f th e p ast, o ffers th e p o ssib ility o f su rp rise an d am azem en t, o f en co u n terin g p eo p le, p laces, an d tim es th at sp u r u s to reco n sid er h o w w e see o u rselv es as h u m an b ein g s. A n en co u n ter w ith th is p ast can b e m in d ex p an d in g in th e b est sen se o f th e term . Y et, tak en to ex trem es, th is ap p ro ach carries its o w n set o f p ro b lem s. R eg ard in g th e p ast “o n its o w n term s”— d etach ed fro m th e circu m stan ces, co n cern s, an d n eed s o f th e p resen t— to o o ften resu lts in a k in d o f eso teric ex o ticism , p recisely th e co n clu sio n o n e co m es to after a to u r th ro u g h th e m o n o g rap h ic literatu re th at d efin es co n tem p o rary h isto rical p ractice. M o st o f th is sp ecialized literatu re m ay en g ag e th e atten tio n o f a sm all co terie o f p ro fessio n als, b u t it fails to en g ag e th e in terest o f an y o n e else. C o m m u n ic a tin g H isto r ic a l Id e a s T h ere’s an o th er sid e to h isto rical th in k in g as w ell: b ein g ab le to d ev elo p an d co m m u n icate y o u r id eas ab o u t h isto ry . F ram in g th e rig h t research q u estio n , d o in g research to d ev elo p a th esis, u sin g h isto rical ev id en ce to d ev elo p arg u m en ts th at su p p o rt y o u r th esis— th ese are all sk ills th at w ill serv e y o u w ell in y o u r o th er acad em ic p u rsu its. T h in k b ack ab o u t th e essay y o u ‘v e b een p rep arin g fo r th is co u rse. O v er th e last sev eral w eek s y o u ‘v e h ad to research p rim ary an d seco n d ary so u rces; assess th e reliab ility o f th o se so u rces; in co rp o rate th e ev id en ce y o u ‘v e fo u n d in to th e b o d y o f y o u r essay ; an d p ro p erly cite all th e in fo rm atio n y o u ‘v e g ath ered . W h en w ill y o u ev er u se th o se sk ills ag ain ? M o st lik ely , it w ill b e in th e n ex t co u rse y o u tak e d u rin g y o u r co lleg e career. In C o n c lu s io n : H is t o r ic a l P e r s p e c t iv e T h e d raft y o u ‘v e alread y su b m itted to y o u r in stru cto r fo r feed b ack co n tain s alm o st all th e essen tial elem en ts o f a th o ro u g h h isto rical an aly sis: a clear an d sp ecific th esis statem en t; b ack g ro u n d in fo rm atio n an d co n tex t; an aly tical arg u m en ts to su p p o rt y o u r th esis; an d h isto rical ev id en ce to b u ttress y o u r arg u m en ts. W h at’s m issin g ? Y o u r o w n h isto rica l p ersp ective. A s w e’v e said b efo re, th in k in g ab o u t h isto ry req u ires m o re th an assem b lin g an d ev alu atin g in fo rm atio n . It also req u ires y o u to th in k ab o u t th e im p act th at stu d y in g h isto ry can h av e o n y o u p erso n ally — b y ch an g in g th e w ay y o u th in k ab o u t sp ecific h isto rical ev en ts, an d b ro ad en in g y o u r u n d erstan d in g o f h o w h isto rian s p u rsu e h isto rical tru th . T h e m e : T h in k in g A b o u t H is t o r y | L e a r n in g B lo c k 8 -3 : W r a p p in g It U p E arlier in th is th em e, y o u learn ed h o w to in co rp o rate so u rces in to y o u r h isto ry p ap er. Y o u also learn ed h o w to u se th e A P A C itatio n W izard to acco m p lish th is g o al. In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u sh o u ld ex p ect to tak e so m e tim e to rev iew y o u r w o rk an d to m ak e su re A L L so u rces in clu d ed as p arap h rase, su m m ary , o r q u o tatio n s fro m a so u rce are clearly an d accu rately cited . L e a r n in g O b je c tiv e s In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u w ill: R ev iew y o u r ex istin g citatio n s to en su re y o u h av e p ro p erly cited h isto rical ev id en ce to su p p o rt y o u r an aly sis A p p ly th e p ersp ectiv es g ain ed fro m h isto rical th in k in g to th e rem ain d er o f y o u r co u rse o f stu d y at S N H U T h ere is n o easy w ay aro u n d th e ten sio n b etw een th e fam iliar p ast, w h ich seem s so relev an t to o u r p resen t n eed s, an d th e p ast w h o se ap p licab ility is n o t im m ed iately m an ifest. T h e ten sio n ex ists b ecau se b o th asp ects o f h isto ry are essen tial an d irred u cib le. D etectin g p lag iarism is n o w a scien ce— an d it’s v ery h ard to g et aw ay w ith crib b in g in to d ay ‘s o n lin e w o rld . (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) A N o t e o n P la g ia r is m In T h em e: T h in k in g A b o u t H isto ry , L earn in g B lo ck 7 3 , y o u learn ed h o w to u se an d cite o u tsid e so u rces. T h e u se o f o u tsid e so u rces m ak es y o u r arg u m en t stro n g er b y sh o w in g th e read er th at y o u h av e d o n e research an d h av e facts an d ev id en ce to b ack u p y o u r claim s. In ad d itio n to u sin g th is ad d itio n al ev id en ce th ro u g h o u t th e essay , it is essen tial th at y o u u se p ro p er citatio n s to en su re th at all co n ten t is cred ited to th e o rig in al au th o r(s). C itatio n s h elp p ro tect th e in tellectu al p ro p erty o f o th ers. A s w e n o ted earlier, p ro p er citatio n is th e b est w ay to av o id an y accu satio n o f p lag iarism . Y o u p lag iarize if y o u u se so m eo n e’s ex act w o rd s w ith o u t u sin g q u o tatio n m ark s aro u n d th em an d citin g th em w ith an in tex t referen ce to th e so u rce an d fu ll d o cu m en tatio n fo r th e so u rce in th e referen ce list. Y o u p lag iarize if y o u u se so m eo n e else’s id eas, ev en if y o u p arap h rase, w ith o u t citin g th em w ith an in tex t referen ce to th e so u rce an d fu ll d o cu m en tatio n fo r th e so u rce in th e referen ce list. Y o u p lag iarize if y o u u se th e id eas o r stru ctu re o f id eas fro m an o th er p iece o f w ritin g w ith n o ack n o w led g em en t o r o n ly m in im al ack n o w led g em en t o f y o u r u se. A s a stu d en t, y o u m ay receiv e failin g g rad es o n assig n m en ts o r b e ex p elled fro m sch o o l if y o u p lag iarize. In th e b u sin ess w o rld , co m p an ies are o ften su ed fo r in frin g em en t o n in tellectu al p ro p erty rig h ts— u sin g m aterial th at so m eo n e else w ro te o r d esig n ed . Y o u can av o id p lag iarism b y p racticin g g o o d research h ab its— tak in g care to u se q u o tatio n m ark s aro u n d an y q u o tatio n o r b o rro w ed p h rase an d carefu lly d o cu m en tin g th e p ag e n u m b er an d citatio n in fo rm atio n fo r each so u rce, ev en in y o u r n o tes. P racticin g g o o d h ab its w h ile tak in g n o tes w ill p rev en t accid en tal slip u p s in th e w ritin g th at y o u tu rn in . T h e m e : T h in k in g A b o u t H is t o r y | L e a r n in g B lo c k 8 -4 : R e v is io n s a n d S u b m is s io n T h ro u g h o u t th is co u rse, y o u h av e b een learn in g ab o u t w ritin g an d research alo n g w ith h isto rical ev en ts an d issu es th at illu strate h o w to th in k lik e an h isto rian . A ll o f th is h as cu lm in ated in y o u r h isto rical ev en t an aly sis essay , w h ich y o u w ill fin ish an d su b m it in th is learn in g b lo ck . T h e sk ills y o u h av e learn ed in th is co u rse— su ch as h isto rical th in k in g , research , critical th in k in g , an d an aly tical w ritin g — w ill b e u sefu l in y o u r stu d ies at S N H U an d y o u r p erso n al an d p ro fessio n al life. W e h o p e y o u feel p ro u d ab o u t y o u r essay — an d w e also h o p e th e p ro cess o f research in g an d w ritin g it h as h elp ed y o u to learn m o re ab o u t h isto ry , ab o u t th e w o rld , an d ab o u t y o u rself. L e a r n in g O b je c tiv e s In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u w ill: L earn strateg ies fo r ed itin g an d rev isin g y o u r essay S u b m it y o u r co m p leted h isto rical an aly sis essay to y o u r in stru cto r N ew sp ap er rep o rters h av e ed ito rs to rev iew th eir w o rk , b u t y o u ‘ll h av e to h an d le th e rev isio n s y o u rself. (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) R e v is io n S t r a t e g ie s In ev ery fo rm , sty le, g en re, an d m ed iu m , n o m atter w h at y o u r sk ill lev el, rev isio n is essen tial to g o o d w ritin g . It’s th e d ifferen ce b etw een sh o w in g talen t an d g ettin g th e jo b d o n e. B y rev isin g y o u r w o rk , y o u tran sfo rm it fro m a reco rd o f y o u r o w n u n d erstan d in g to w ritin g th at co n n ects w ith read ers an d is ab le to sh ap e th eir u n d erstan d in g . W riters o ften th in k th at if th ey d id n ‘t see a p ro b lem th e first tim e, th ey w o n ‘t see it th e seco n d tim e eith er. B u t th is isn ‘t th e case w ith m an y p ro b lem s y o u can id en tify an d fix in th e first few stag es o f rev isio n . R ev isio n allo w s y o u to co m e b ack to y o u r p ap er w ith fresh ey es an d read it as a read er rath er th an as th e w riter w h o alread y k n o w s w h at h e o r sh e is say in g . If th ere is a g ap in ev id en ce o r p arag rap h s in serted w h ere th ey d o n ‘t lo g ically flo w , y o u ‘re m o st lik ely to n o tice th ese p ro b lem s after y o u ‘v e set y o u r p ap er asid e fo r a w h ile. If y o u ‘re lack in g to p ic sen ten ces fo r y o u r p arag rap h s, y o u are g o in g to h av e ju st as d ifficu lt a tim e fig u rin g o u t w h at y o u w ere say in g as y o u r read er w o u ld . S o co m e b ack to y o u r p ap er “as a read er” an d see w h at y o u can fin d d u rin g th ese rev isio n stag es. T h e o th er critical task in th e rev isio n p ro cess is im p lem en tin g th e feed b ack y o u h av e alread y receiv ed fro m y o u r in stru cto r. M ak e su re th at y o u h av e reread an y an d all in stru cto r feed b ack y o u receiv ed d u rin g th is co u rse, an d b e certain th at y o u h av e m ad e a ll su g g ested ch an g es. A s y o u p rep are to su b m it y o u r h isto rical an aly sis essay , y o u ‘ll w an t to reread y o u r selected read in g s, an d tak e ad d itio n al n o tes. A n d d o n ‘t b e sh y ab o u t em ailin g y o u r in stru cto r w ith an y rem ain in g q u estio n s. F in ally , rem em b er th at th e W ritin g C en ter is also av ailab le if y o u n eed ad d itio n al h elp w ith y o u r assig n m en ts in th is co u rse. G e n e r a l T ip s fo r R e v isio n B efo re y o u b eg in rev isin g y o u r essay , it is h elp fu l to co n sid er th e fo llo w in g g en eral tip s fo r rev isio n . T h ese tip s can ap p ly to an y w ritin g assig n m en t. 1 . G et so m e d ista n ce fro m y o u r p a p er. S et y o u r d raft asid e fo r a w h ile, p referab ly o v ern ig h t o r lo n g er. W h en y o u read it ag ain , try to assu m e y o u r au d ien ce’s p ersp ectiv e an d read y o u r w o rk w ith fresh ey es. 2 . G iv e y o u rself p len ty o f tim e to rev ise. D o n ‘t w ait u n til th e n ig h t b efo re a p ap er is d u e to attem p t rev isio n s. In stead , try to fin ish w ritin g y o u r d raft at least a few d ay s b efo re th e d ead lin e so y o u h av e tim e to reread an d to m ak e th e larg escale an d sm allscale ch an g es th at are n ecessary . 3 . P rin t o u t a h a rd co p y o f y o u r d ra ft. It is o ften d ifficu lt to catch g ram m ar an d sp ellin g erro rs w h en y o u read y o u r p ap er o n a co m p u ter screen . It is also h ard to g et a g o o d sen se o f th e en tirety o f y o u r p ap er, to see w h ere an d h o w y o u r d raft n eed s reo rg an izin g . R ev isin g a h ard co p y allo w s y o u to sp o t th ese p ro b lem s an d to m ak e n o tatio n s d irectly o n y o u r d raft as y o u read it. 4 . R ea d y o u r p a p er o u t lo u d . It is o ften easier to h ea r th e p arts o f y o u r d raft th at n eed clarificatio n o r co rrectio n th an it is to see th em . R ead in g y o u r p ap er alo u d w ith a p en o r p en cil in h an d w ill h elp y o u lo cate th e sen ten celev el ch an g es th at n eed to b e m ad e an d th e p laces w h ere y o u r w ritin g is co n fu sin g o r u n clear. L a r g e -sc a le r e v isio n s A fter y o u ‘re su re th at y o u r arg u m en t is ad d ressin g th e rig h t co n ten t to m eet y o u r p u rp o se, it’s tim e to u n d ertak e larg escale rev isio n s— th o se rev isio n s th at co n cern th e o rg an izatio n o f y o u r id eas an d fillin g in ev id en ce an d d etails to su p p o rt y o u r p o in ts. S o m e sectio n s an d p arag rap h s m ay req u ire rew ritin g at th is stag e, b u t y o u d o n ‘t n eed to lo o k fo r p ro o fread in g erro rs y et. S in ce y o u ‘ll b e ad d in g , rem o v in g , m o v in g , an d ch an g in g sen ten ces to b etter em p h asize y o u r o v erall m ean in g , y o u d o n ‘t n eed to g et b o g g ed d o w n in to th e d etails o f sen ten ce stru ctu re o r p u n ctu atio n ju st y et. W h en y o u retu rn to y o u r d raft, b eg in b y assessin g th e p ap er as a w h o le. Is y o u r th esis statem en t clearly stated ? D o y o u r m ajo r p o in ts su p p o rt y o u r th esis statem en t? H av e y o u su m m arized o p p o sin g v iew p o in ts w h en ap p ro p riate? O p en u p y o u r essay d raft in a w o rd p ro cessin g p ro g ram an d h ig h lig h t th e p arts o f th e essay th at resp o n d to th ese req u irem en ts. Y o u m ay ev en u se y o u r w o rd p ro cesso r’s co m m en tin g featu re to ad d a co m m en t to state th e ro le o f th e sectio n in y o u r essay . If y o u can ‘t id en tify a sectio n th at serv es o n e o f th ese fu n ctio n s, y o u sh o u ld create o n e an d su p p o rt th at sectio n w ith m o re d etails an d ev id en ce. S m a ll-sc a le r e v isio n s A fter y o u r p arag rap h s are in o rd er, it’s tim e to fo cu s o n sen ten celev el ch an g es. T h is p art o f th e rev isio n p ro cess is m ad e u p o f ed itin g — d ecid in g o n th e clearest w ay to p resen t an id ea— an d p ro o fread in g — co rrectin g erro rs in sp ellin g , g ram m ar, w o rd u sag e, an d sen ten ce stru ctu re. G ram m atical erro rs can d istract y o u r read er an d m ak e y o u r id eas seem h astily th ro w n to g eth er, ev en if y o u p u t sig n ifican t tim e in to y o u r d raft so far. U se th e q u estio n s b elo w to h elp id en tify an d co rrect co m m o n erro rs. A re y o u r sen ten ces g ram m atically co m p lete w ith a su b ject an d a v erb ? D o y o u v ary y o u r sen ten ces in sty le an d len g th ? H av e y o u u sed p u n ctu atio n co rrectly ? Is y o u r lan g u ag e sp ecific en o u g h o r to o v ag u e? Is y o u r to n e ap p ro p riate? D o y o u u n d erstan d th e m ean in g o f th e w o rd s y o u h av e u sed ? A re th ere an y h o m o n y m erro rs (lik e its v ersu s it’s, o r th eir v ersu s th ere)? S e lf-e v a lu a tio n T h e ch eck list b elo w w ill h elp y o u co n sid er y o u r p ro g ress an d d eterm in e w h ere y o u m ig h t im p ro v e th e p ap er. H o w are y o u in d icatin g th e ch an g es y o u ‘v e m ad e d u rin g th e rev isio n p ro cess? A re y o u sav in g d ifferen t v ersio n s o f y o u r p ap er? Is th e p ap er p ro p erly fo rm atted ? D o y o u h av e a clear, arg u ab le, an d easily id en tifiab le th esis? D o y o u h av e a clear fo cu s th ro u g h o u t y o u r essay th at co n n ects b ack to th e th esis? D o y o u d ev elo p y o u r m ain p o in ts in en o u g h d etail? D o y o u in clu d e en o u g h su p p o rt? H av e y o u ad d ed n ew d etails o r ev id en ce to stren g th en w eak er su p p o rtin g p o in ts? H av e y o u d eleted u n n ecessary o r red u n d an t m aterial? D o y o u p ro v id e en o u g h co n tex t in th e o p en in g p arag rap h (s) o f y o u r p ap er to o rien t th e read er? D o y o u d efin e k ey term s? D o es y o u r co n clu sio n restate y o u r m ain claim in fresh lan g u ag e an d rev iew th e m ajo r su p p o rtin g p o in ts? Is y o u r p ap er w ritten fro m an ap p ro p riate an d co n sisten t p o in t o f v iew ? H av e y o u co n sid ered y o u r au d ien ce? D o es y o u r p ap er flo w lo g ically fro m o n e p o in t to th e n ex t? A re th ere an y areas th at m ig h t co n fu se y o u r read ers? H av e y o u ed ited fo r erro rs in sp ellin g , g ram m ar, o r w o rd u sag e? H av e y o u set y o u r p ap er asid e fo r a d ay o r tw o an d reread it to ch eck fo r clarity ? R e fle c t io n a n d R e v is io n T h in k b ack to th e h isto rical case stu d ies th at h av e b een co v ered in th is co u rse: Irish im m ig ran t ex p erien ce Q u éb éco is im m ig ran t ex p erien ce W o m en ‘s su ffrag e an d th e N in eteen th A m en d m en t E q u al R ig h ts A m en d m en t S ch o o l d eseg reg atio n in B o sto n V o tin g R ig h ts A ct o f 1 9 6 5 C h ero k ee “T rail o f T ears” A lask a N ativ e C o rp o ratio n s T h e E n d W ith th e su b m issio n o f y o u r h isto rical ev en t an aly sis essay , y o u h av e co m p leted all th e co u rsew o rk fo r H isto ry 2 0 0 . B efo re y o u g o , th o u g h , p lease tak e ju st a co u p le o f m o m en ts to tak e sto ck o f w h at w e’v e acco m p lish ed in th is co u rse. W e’v e co v ered a lo t o f m aterial ab o u t a lo t o f d ifferen t g ro u p s o f p eo p le— im m ig ran ts, w o m en , A frican A m erican s, an d N ativ e A m erican s— an d h o w each o f th o se g ro u p s h as stru g g led , w ith v ary in g d eg rees o f su ccess, to attain th e fu ll p ro m ise o f eq u al rig h ts in A m erican so ciety . U n lik e m an y h isto ry co u rses, th o u g h , th is co u rse h asn ‘t fo cu sed o n th e n am es an d d ates th at m ak e u p th e h isto rical reco rd ; rath er, it h as tried to sh o w y o u h o w h isto ry w o rk s, an d h o w y o u can u se it in y o u r life. W e’v e ex p lo red th e w ay th at h isto rian s ap p ro ach h isto ry , th ro u g h th e p ro cess o f h isto rical th in k in g , th e ap p licatio n o f d ifferen t h isto rical len ses, an d th e assessm en t o f h isto rical sig n ifican ce. W e’v e lo o k ed at th e F iv e C ‘s o f h isto rical th in k in g — ch an g e, co n tex t, cau sality , co n tin g en cy , an d co m p lex ity — an d seen h o w th ey all w o rk to g eth er to create th e rich ly w o v en fab ric o f h isto rical u n d erstan d in g . T h is co u rse h as sh o w n y o u h o w to co m m u n icate h isto rical id eas— u sin g p rim ary an d seco n d ary so u rces to d ev elo p a th esis statem en t, an d th en tailo rin g y o u r statem en t to a sp ecific au d ien ce. It’s h elp ed y o u craft a w ritin g p lan to g u id e y o u r research an d w ritin g ab o u t a sp ecific h isto rical ev en t. A n d it’s ex p o sed y o u to th e p ro cess o f h isto rical an aly sis: th e u se o f h isto rical ev id en ce to d raw co n clu sio n s ab o u t a h isto rical ev en t, an d th en fo rm u late arg u m en ts to su p p o rt th o se co n clu sio n s. W ritin g y o u r h isto rical ev en t an aly sis essay req u ired y o u to u tilize h isto rical th in k in g , co m m u n icatio n s, an d an aly tic sk ills. A n d it in tro d u ced y o u to th e sp ecialized co m p o sitio n sk ills n eed ed to p ro d u ce an o rig in al, fu lly so u rced research p ap er. F in ally , it’s o u r h o p e th at th is co u rse h as ch an g ed th e w ay y o u th in k a b o u t h isto ry . W e h o p e it’s g iv en y o u a b etter ap p reciatio n o f h o w th e p ast in fo rm s th e p resen t, an d h o w an u n d erstan d in g o f h isto ry can b en efit y o u th ro u g h o u t y o u r acad em ic career— an d th ro u g h o u t y o u r life.
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In response to your peers, reflect on their revised statement. Describe the ways you find it shows the complexity of the event, and provide a suggestion for how they can further develop the statement or the supporting examples. Peer#1 Karli Shouse posted Oct 22, 2021 3:45 AMSubscribe Hello, everyone! I chose the thesis statement, “The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) and the Native corporation system have been good for Alaska Natives.” I would revise this statement to, “The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act and Native corporation system has been beneficial for Alaska economically, however some natives feel it weakens ties to Native heritage.” Alaskan natives received a much better deal than any other native group. Some factors that aided in producing a different outcome for native Alaskans included the presence of effective political representation and a public understanding of the injustices Natives had endured in the past. This public awareness increased social and political pressure to construct an appropriate settlement. The federal government required the state to work directly with the natives to negotiate the terms of the settlement. “Natives received 44 million acres and a cash payment of $962.5 million. The 44 million acres was one-ninth of the total area of the state of Alaska; the monetary settlement represented a direct payment of $462.5 million from the federal government and another $500 million to be paid over time from state oil revenues,” (ANCSA, 1971). The oil economy in Alaska has generated considerable economic advantages. The Alaska Permanent Fund is a state program that collects 25 percent of oil-land royalties. Those funds are then invested to benefit all Alaskans. Many Natives would argue that the corporation system is a rival to their traditional tribal structures of government and weakens ties to their heritage. Tribal government has reemerged in some locations and seen a resurgence in significance. Peer#2 Heather Pereira posted Oct 21, 2021 1:31 PMSubscribe Hello Everyone, The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) and the Native corporation system have been good for Alaska Natives. Revising this I would say, the Native Corporations system and Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of December 18. 1971 was placed by President Nixon which led to an economic increase allowing progression of both native and non natives. After the ANCSA was placed they developed Native corporations, which allowed “Natives who were alive in 1971 could enroll in one of the corporations, and each received 100 shares of stock in the corporation in which they enrolled” (Linxwiler, 2007) The shares allowed for the Native to gain money to increase their wealth which allowed for the progression within the economy. The corporations were also allowed access to any oil or minerals on the land, if they were used for business profits the Natives were given yearly dividends and paid shares depending on the profits made. This increased the economy as it gave businesses opportunity and job openings thus also increasing the economy and making it better for Natives and non Natives. Lastly ” ANCSA paved the way for the emergence of the state’s “oil economy,” which has generated substantial economic benefits for both Natives and non-Natives” (Alaska Humanities Forum, 2016). This is another example of how the ANCSA created an increase in the economy by creating the emergence of the oil economy by creating the construction of the pipeline this was known as the Alaska Permanent Fund this created more jobs for individuals both Natives and non Natives. A few things ANCSA was contingent on based off the passage is the Natives had effective political representation, through the AFN and other organizations, U.S. courts were more sympathetic to the Alaska Natives’ claims, ruling in their favor in several instances, the state government was willing to seek a negotiated settlement with the Natives (Jones 1981). Without these the ANCSA would have had a very different outcome, it may not have been so economically successful without these forces occurring creating a better relationships between the Natives and non Natives.

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